Gregory: You are right that the current use of handwriting analysis as evidence is problematic. But this problem exists only because there is no licensing board to set professional standards and thus deter irresponsible analysts from making exaggerated claims. When such a board is established, however, handwriting analysis by licensed practitioners will be a legitimate courtroom tool for character assessment.
Summarize Argument: Counter-Position
In response to Sasha’s claim that handwriting analysis should be banned in court, Gregory concludes handwriting analysis will be a legitimate courtroom tool once a licensing board is established. As evidence, Gregory suggests that a licensing board would set professional standards and thus deter irresponsible analysts from making exaggerated claims.
Describe Method of Reasoning
Gregory counters the position held by Sasha. He does this by defending the use of handwriting analysts in limited instances where that handwriting analyst is licensed. In Gregory’s view, this would solve the problem both he and Sasha agree occurs when handwriting analysis is used in court.
A
He ignores evidence introduced as support for Sasha’s recommendation.
Gregory does not ignore the evidence introduced by Sasha. In fact, Gregory agrees with Sasha that the current use of handwriting analysis is problematic.
B
He defends a principle by restricting the class to which it is to be applied.
The principle Gregory defends is the acceptable use of handwriting analysis as a courtroom tool. The restricted class is those handwriting analysts that are licensed under a licensing board.
C
He abstracts a general principle from specific evidence.
There is no specific evidence presented in either Gregory or Sasha’s argument. Both Gregory and Sasha discuss the use of handwriting analysis on a general, theoretical level.
D
He identifies a self-contradictory statement in Sasha’s argument.
Gregory does not identify a self-contradictory statement. Instead, he acknowledges the problem Sasha identified and proposed a potential solution.
E
He shows that Sasha’s argument itself manifests the undesirable characteristic that it condemns.
Sasha’s argument does not manifest the characteristics it condemns. Sasha condemns handwriting analysis for habitually exaggerated claims. Her solution to this is to ban handwriting analysis in its entirety.
"Surprising" Phenomenon
Why are cost overruns more common in the fixed-profit kind of “cost-plus” contract than in the fixed-percentage kind of “cost-plus” contract, even though under the fixed-percentage kind higher costs would lead to higher profits for the contractor?
Objective
The correct answer should tell us about a difference between the fixed-profit and fixed-percentage kinds of “cost-plus” contract that would lead to a higher likelihood of cost overruns for the fixed-profit kind.
A
Clients are much less likely to agree to a fixed-profit type of cost-plus contract when it is understood that under certain conditions the project will be scuttled than they are when there is no such understanding.
This tells us about likelihood of accepting a fixed-profit contract when there are conditions that would lead to the end of the project. But this doesn’t impact the costs incurred on a project or why those costs more commonly go over expected costs for fixed-profits contracts.
B
On long-term contracts, cost projections take future inflation into account, but since the figures used are provided by the government, they are usually underestimates.
This doesn’t differentiate between fixed-profit and fixed-percentage contracts, so it’s not going to explain why cost overruns are more common for fixed-profit contracts.
C
On any sizable construction project, the contractor bills the client monthly or quarterly, so any tendency for original cost estimates to be exceeded can be detected early.
This doesn’t differentiate between fixed-profit and fixed-percentage contracts, so it’s not going to explain why cost overruns are more common for fixed-profit contracts.
D
Clients billed under a cost-plus contract are free to review individual billings in order to uncover wasteful expenditures, but they do so only when the contractor’s profit varies with cost.
If clients review for wasteful expenditures only when profit varies with cost, that means they don’t review for wasteful expenditures on fixed-profit contracts (where profit doesn’t vary with cost). This could be why cost overruns are more common for this kind of contract.
E
The practice of submitting deliberately exaggerated cost estimates is most common in the case of fixed-profit contracts, because it makes the profit, as a percentage of estimated cost, appear modest.
Cost overruns involve the excess cost over the estimated cost. If fixed-profit contracts more often involve exaggerated estimates, that should lead us to expect fewer cost overruns for these contracts, since the initial estimate would be higher than the actual expected costs.
Summarize Argument
The author concludes that the chances intelligent life will emerge on a planet are low. This is because planetary systems generally lack large planets, which protected Earth from large comets before life on Earth eventually arose.
Notable Assumptions
The author assumes that most or all planetary systems are afflicted with large comets that could impact planets capable of producing intelligent life, and that these large comets can only be avoided by the presence of large planets. This means the author assumes there are relatively few planetary systems that differ from Earth’s planetary system.
A
whether all planetary systems are formed from similar amounts of matter
We’re not interested in matter. We have no reason to believe all planetary systems have to have the exact same features for the author’s argument to work. They simply have to have planets and comets.
B
whether intelligent species would be likely to survive if a comet struck their planet
We don’t care about what happens once intelligent life emerges. The author’s conclusion is about the likelihood intelligent life will emerge in the first place.
C
whether large comets could be deflected by only one large planet rather than by two
This tells us one large planet would suffice, but the author claims most planetary systems don’t have any large planets. This doesn’t help us evaluate the author’s claim about the likelihood of intelligent life emerging, which is tied to the average features of planetary systems.
D
how high the chances are that planetary systems will contain many large comets
If virtually every planetary system contained many large comets, the author’s argument would be greatly strengthened. If the opposite was true, then there would be no need for large planets to protect smaller planets capable of producing intelligent life.
E
how likely it is that planetary systems containing large planets will also contain planets the size of Earth
The author never claims Earth is the only size of planet that can produce intelligent life. If larger or smaller planets were also capable of doing so, then we wouldn’t care how likely it is that planetary systems contain planets the size of Earth.
"Surprising" Phenomenon
If people undergoing migraine treatment tend to show more signs of anxiety (a psychological issue), how can it be that the cause of migraines has nothing to do with psychological factors?
Objective
The right answer will be a hypothesis that offers a difference between people who are being treated for migraines and people who are not. This difference will provide another explanation for why people who are receiving treatment tend to have more anxiety without saying that anxiety or other psychological factors cause migraines.
A
People who have migraine headaches tend to have relatives who also have migraine headaches.
(A) does not offer a difference between the groups, and is therefore not useful for explaining the apparent discrepancy.
B
People who have migraine headaches often suffer these headaches when under emotional stress.
(B) deepens the apparent discrepancy instead of helping to explain it. If people often get migraines when under emotional stress, it leads one to believe that migraines could be caused by psychological factors, which contradicts the strong evidence offered in the stimulus.
C
People who rate higher on the standard psychological scale of anxiety are more likely to seek professional treatment than are people who rate lower on the scale.
(C) offers a difference that explains why individuals being treated for migraines have more anxiety: it is not because anxiety causes migraines, but because they are more likely to seek, and therefore receive, professional treatment.
D
Of the many studies done on the cause of migraine headaches, most of those that suggest that psychological factors such as anxiety cause migraines have been widely publicized.
This does not help to explain the apparent discrepancy, as the publicized nature of certain studies does not affect those studies’ results.
E
Most people who have migraines and who seek professional treatment remain in treatment until they stop having migraines, whether their doctors consider the cause to be physiological or psychological.
(E) does not address the apparent discrepancy. The length of time or success of one’s treatment does not explain why people who receive treatment have more anxiety than those who do not.
Economist: Your conclusion cannot be correct, since it would mean that an income tax of 0 percent would generate the maximum revenue.
Summarize Argument: Counter-Position
The economist concludes that, contrary to what the politician says, it cannot be true that the lower the rate of income tax, the more revenue generated. As evidence, the economist points out that an income tax rate of 0 percent would generate the most revenue.
Describe Method of Reasoning
The economist counters the position held by the politician. He does this by showing that the politician’s conclusion would lead to an obviously false outcome. It is obviously false that an income tax rate of 0 percent would generate the maximum amount of income tax revenue.
A
stating a general principle that is incompatible with the conclusion the politician derives
The economist does not state a general principle. Rather, the economist is addressing a specific concern about the effect income tax rates would or would not have on revenue.
B
providing evidence that where the politician’s advice has been adopted, the results have been disappointing
The economist does not present this kind of evidence. Rather, the economist discusses the effects on a theoretical level.
C
arguing that the principle derived by the politician, if applied in the limiting case, leads to an absurdly false conclusion
The principle derived by the politician is the lower the income tax rate, the more revenue the government will generate. The limiting case is applying the politician’s principle to an instance where the income tax rate is 0 percent.
D
undermining the credibility of the politician by openly questioning the politician’s understanding of economics
The economist is not undermining the politician’s credibility. Rather, the economist is simply pointing out that the politician’s predictions would lead to obviously false conclusion.
E
attacking the politician’s argument by giving reason to doubt the truth of a premise
The economist does not attack a premise asserted by the politician. Rather, the economist criticizes the politician’s conclusion by pointing out an obviously false outcome.
Winifred: Not necessarily. Most animals have several ways of accomplishing critical tasks. Bees of some species can navigate using either the position of the Sun or the memory of landmarks. Similarly, for honeybees, scent trails are a supplementary not an exclusive means of communicating.
Summarize Argument: Counter-Position
Winifred thinks that honeybees’ use of scent trails does not necessarily mean that the dance of honeybees serves a purpose other than communicating food locations. As support, Winifred explains that most creatures “have several ways of accomplishing critical tasks.” We also get a specific example to back up this claim: some bees can navigate using either the Sun or landmarks. Winifred further states that honeybees’ scent trails are not their main communication method. Winifred’s conclusion is thus supported by both a broad claim about animals and a specific one about honeybees.
Identify Argument Part
Winifred’s statement about how bees of some species navigate is a specific example used to support the claim that most animals can accomplish critical tasks in multiple ways.
A
It addresses an ambiguity in Henry’s use of the expression “communicate the location.”
here is no ambiguity to address in Henry’s use of the phrase “communicate the location”, nor does Winifred claim there is. This just isn’t something the argument does.
B
It provides evidence in support of a general claim.
This matches the use of the claim about certain bees’ navigation methods. The claim is used in the argument as an example of animals having “several ways to accomplish critical tasks.” The example provides support by showing that the general claim is backed up in reality.
C
It calls into question the accuracy of key evidence cited by Henry.
Winifred never contests the accuracy of Henry’s evidence, meaning no part of Winifred’s argument plays this role.
D
It points out that Henry’s conclusion directly contradicts one of his premises.
This is not something that any part of Winifred’s argument does.
E
It proposes an alternative explanation for the honeybees’ dance.
Winifred never actually states what might be the purpose of the honeybees’ dance (and nor does Henry). The argument is just about whether it’s possible the dance is used to communicate food locations.
Winifred: Not necessarily. Most animals have several ways of accomplishing critical tasks. Bees of some species can navigate using either the position of the Sun or the memory of landmarks. Similarly, for honeybees, scent trails are a supplementary not an exclusive means of communicating.
Speaker 1 Summary
Henry argues that the purpose of the honeybees’ dance must be for something besides alerting other bees to the location of food. This is because bees already have another method of communicating the location of food - scent trails from the food source.
Speaker 2 Summary
Winifred points out that animals can have multiple methods for achieving the same goal. So, it’s possible honeybees alert others to food sources through their dance, even if they already have another method for alerting others to food sources.
Objective
We’re looking for a point of disagreement. The speakers disagree on whether there must be another explanation for the honeybees’ dance besides the purpose of communicating the location of food.
A
theories of animal behavior can be established on the basis of evidence about only one species of animal
Henry doesn’t have an opinion on this. He doesn’t try to infer anything about a general theory of animal behavior from a single species. His argument is solely about honeybees and the purpose of their dance.
B
there is more than one valid explanation for the dance of honeybees
Henry has no opinion. He thinks there must be another explanation besides communicating food source. But he could be open to one or multiple other explanations.
C
honeybees communicate the location of food sources through their dance
The speakers disagree. Henry thinks there must be a different explanation for why honeybees dance. Winifred believes this is a potential explanation for the dance.
D
the honeybee is the only species of bee that is capable of communicating navigational information to other hive members
Henry has no opinion. We know he thinks forager honeybees communicate location of food through a scent trail. We don’t know whether he thinks other kinds of bees also do this or whether other kinds of bees use other methods for communicating the location of things.
E
the honeybee’s sense of smell plays a role in its foraging strategies
The speakers agree. Henry believes this because he acknowledges honeybees communicate food location through a scent trail. Winifred also acknowledges this method of communicating food location - it’s a supplementary method of communication.
Summarize Argument
The author concludes that offering a rebate on Grow-Again will not increase sales. No support is offered for this conclusion.
Notable Assumptions
The author assumes there’s some reason why the rebate wouldn’t be profitable for the company. If the ointment usually cost $20 and cost $10 after the rebate, then it would seem customers are being offered a cheaper product. We need to know why this wouldn’t increase sales.
A
When using an ointment, people tend to believe that applying it in greater quantities can make it more effective.
We don’t care about how people use the ointment. We’re concerned with the rebate.
B
Grow-Again is more effective on some of the men who use it than it is on others.
We don’t care about how effective the ointment is. We care about the rebate.
C
The rebate, if offered, would not attract purchasers who otherwise might not use Grow-Again.
The rebate will not attract any new customers. Thus, by offering the rebate, the company would simply be losing some potential profit on every ointment sold.
D
Baldness in men can be caused by a variety of factors, only one of which is heredity.
We don’t care about what causes baldness. We care about the rebate.
E
Grow-Again is a product whose per-unit manufacturing cost does not fall significantly when the product is produced in large quantities.
We don’t care about the manufacturing cost. We care about the rebate, and why the rebate wouldn’t increase sales.