Much of today’s literature is inferior: most of our authors are intellectually and emotionally inexperienced, and their works lack both the intricacy and the focus on the significant that characterize good literature. However, Hypatia’s latest novel is promising; it shows a maturity, complexity, and grace that far exceeds that of her earlier works.
Summary
Much of today’s literature is inferior. Most authors today are intellectually and emotionally inexperienced. Most authors’ works today lack intricacy and a focus on the significant. Good literature is characterized by intricacy and a focus on the significant. Hypatia’s most recent novel shows grace, complexity, and maturity exceeding her earlier works, and is therefore promising.
Strongly Supported Conclusions
Hypatia’s most recent work contains a property of good literature to a greater degree than her earlier works.
A
Much of today’s literature focuses less on the significant than Hypatia’s latest novel focuses on the significant.
This is unsupported because the stimulus doesn’t tell us how much Hypatia’s latest novel focuses on the significant.
B
Much of today’s literature at least lacks the property of grace.
This is unsupported; while we know that much of today’s literature lacks the properties of good literature, grace is not identified as one of those properties.
C
Hypatia’s latest novel is good literature when judged by today’s standards.
This is unsupported because a focus on the significant is identified as one of the properties of good literature, and we don’t know if Hypatia’s latest novel focuses on the significant.
D
Hypatia’s latest novel is clearly better than the majority of today’s literature.
This is unsupported because we don’t know how much Hypatia’s novel focuses on the significant. We cannot conclude that the novel’s complexity alone makes it better than most literature today.
E
Hypatia’s latest novel has at least one property of good literature to a greater degree than her earlier works.
This is strongly supported because we know that Hypatia’s novel has more complexity than her earlier works. Complexity here is taken to be synonymous with intricacy, meaning her recent work has a property of good literature.
Summarize Argument: Counter-Position
The critic believes that it doesn’t really matter that some popular psychological theories are inelegant and don’t demystify the mind. To support this, the critic explains that these popular theories tend to give better results in therapy than the more elegant, more explanatory theories. This indicates that the popular theories have practical merit, thus supporting the critic’s conclusion that their inelegance isn’t important.
Identify Argument Part
The statement about relative therapeutic success is used to support the conclusion that the inelegance of some popular theories is not especially important. In other words, this statement helps to rebut a criticism of some popular theories.
A
It is used to disprove evidence against these theories.
Like (C) and (E), the argument doesn’t do this. The critic never attempts to disprove the claims made against the popular theories. Instead, the argument is about focusing on a different aspect: practicality rather than scientific merit.
B
It is used to override some considerations against these theories.
This is a good description of the role played by the claim about relative therapeutic success. The critic uses this claim as evidence that the criticism isn’t important, and that the considerations against the popular theories should be overridden by their therapeutic value.
C
It is used to suggest that popular psychological theories are actually better scientific explanations than are their rivals.
Like (A) and (E), no part of the argument does this; the critic never disputes that the popular theories are scientifically weaker. Instead, the argument redirects the focus from scientific merit to practical merit.
D
It is used to illustrate what the critic takes to be the most important aspect of scientific theories.
There’s nothing in the argument about what the critic takes to be the most important aspect of scientific theories, especially not in an absolute sense among all possible aspects. Nothing in the argument tells us this.
E
It is used to suggest that the popular theories may not be as devoid of explanatory power as one may be led to believe.
Like (A) and (C), this isn’t something that the argument suggests. The critic never tries to debate the popular theories’ lack of explanatory power.
Summarize Argument
Officials argue that setting out poison for the squirrels would pose no threat to the owl population. This is because the poison would only be accessible to squirrels and other rodents.
Notable Assumptions
The author assumes that the squirrels don’t benefit the owl population in ways that outweigh their stripping the bark from the trees that owls nest in. The officials also assume that the owls won’t be harmed if other rodents die from poison set out for grey squirrels. Finally, the officials also assume that if owls can’t directly reach the poison, it won’t threaten their population. This means the officials assume the owls either won’t eat the dead squirrels, or else that poison in dead squirrels won’t harm owls to such a degree that it hurts their population.
A
One of the species whose members are likely to eat the poison is the red squirrel, a species on which owls do not prey.
If owls don’t prey on red squirrels, then it doesn’t matter whether or not the red squirrels also die. We would need more details about the ecosystem for this to be a weakener.
B
The owls whose nesting sites are currently being destroyed by the gray squirrels feed primarily on rodents.
Even though the poison would eliminate a threat to the owl population, it would also eliminate one of their food sources. This would harm the owl population, which means the poison likely won’t achieve its intended purpose.
C
No indigenous population of any other bird species apart from the endangered owls is threatened by the gray squirrels.
We don’t care about other bird species. We need to know if the poison will help the owl population.
D
The owls that are threatened build their nests in the tops of trees, but the gray squirrels strip away bark from the trunks.
We already know the squirrels are destroying the trees that owls nest in. It doesn’t matter exactly how that occurs.
E
The officials’ plan entails adding the poison to food sources that are usually eaten by rodents but not by other animals.
If anything, this strengthens the officials’ argument by suggesting that other members of the ecosystem won’t be directly consuming the poison. We need to show that the poison isn’t such a good idea in the first place.
Summary
The author concludes that the information in typical broadcast news stories is poorly organized. This is based on the following:
Most people feel that they’re confused by info in broadcast news. This could be due to the info being delivered too quickly or to its being poorly organized. But, the author attempts to eliminate the “too quickly” explanation by pointing out that the content of a typical news story shows that most people can handle far more density of info than the average info density of a news story.
Most people feel that they’re confused by info in broadcast news. This could be due to the info being delivered too quickly or to its being poorly organized. But, the author attempts to eliminate the “too quickly” explanation by pointing out that the content of a typical news story shows that most people can handle far more density of info than the average info density of a news story.
Notable Assumptions
The author assumes that the fact people can handle a higher density of info than what’s found in a typical news story indicates that people are not confused by the news info being delivered too quickly.
The author also overlooks the possibility that there are other explanations besides being delivered too quickly or being poorly organized that might account for why people are confused by info from broadcast news.
The author also overlooks the possibility that there are other explanations besides being delivered too quickly or being poorly organized that might account for why people are confused by info from broadcast news.
A
It is not the number of broadcast news stories to which a person is exposed that is the source of the feeling of confusion.
Necessary, because if this isn’t true — if the number of news stories that a person is exposed to is the source of confusion — then that undermines the author’s theory that the reason for confusion must be the poor organization of stories. Notice that the author’s premise concerning information density only related to the density of info in a typical story; this overlooks the potential impact of being exposed to many stories.
B
Poor organization of information in a news story makes it impossible to understand the information.
Not necessary, because the argument concerns the cause of confusion. One can still be confused by the info in a story, even if it’s possible to understand the info.
C
Being exposed to more broadcast news stories within a given day would help a person to better understand the news.
Not necessary, because the author believes poor organization is the cause of confusion. So although the author thinks better organization would help someone be less confused, that doesn’t imply the author must think that having more news stories would help someone be less confused.
D
Most people can cope with a very high information density.
We know that most people can cope with more density than that found in a typical news story. This doesn’t imply the author thinks most people can cope with a “very high” info density. Maybe the info density of a news story is low, and people can cope with just slightly more.
E
Some people are being overwhelmed by too much information.
Summarize Argument: Phenomenon-Hypothesis
The author concludes that Japanese art collectors in the 1980s had a preference for certain aesthetic attributes in nineteenth-century Impressionist paintings. This is because Japanese art collectors were very active purchasing such paintings in the 1980s.
Notable Assumptions
The author assumes that Japanese collectors bought nineteenth-century Impressionist paintings in the 1980s out of aesthetic preference, rather than because of other forces, such as market forces. Perhaps these collectors believed such paintings would rise in value over the next decade and planned to sell later on, or perhaps those collectors had some academic interest in the paintings.
A
Impressionist paintings first became popular among art collectors in Europe at the beginning of the twentieth century.
We don’t care what European art collectors in the early twentieth century think of Impressionism. We’re talking about Japanese collectors, and we have no reason to connect the two groups.
B
During the 1980s, the Japanese economy underwent a sustained expansion that was unprecedented in the country’s recent history.
This doesn’t tell us anything about why Japanese collectors were so interested in nineteenth-century Impressionism.
C
Several nineteenth-century Impressionist painters adopted certain techniques and visual effects found in Japanese prints that are highly esteemed in Japan.
Japanese collectors’ tastes were influenced by their aesthetic milieu. Since esteemed Japanese prints share features with nineteenth-century Impressionist paintings, Japanese collectors gravitated towards these paintings on aesthetic grounds.
D
During the 1960s and 1970s, the prices of nineteenth-century Impressionist paintings often exceeded the prices of paintings by older European masters.
We don’t care about the 1960s and 1970s. We’re talking about Japanese collectors in the 1980s, so trends in earlier decades aren’t relevant here.
E
During the 1980s, collectors from Japan and around the world purchased many paintings and prints by well-known twentieth-century Japanese artists.
We don’t care about twentieth-century Japanese artists. We’re interested in nineteenth-century Impressionism and Japanese collectors.
Summary
Pollen/allergens can cause cells in nose to release histamine.
Histamine causes certain allergy symptoms.
Antihistamines can reduce these allergy symptoms by blocking the action of histamine.
Antihistamines also have other effects. One of those effects is drowsiness.
Histamine doesn’t play any role in how colds produce symptoms.
Histamine causes certain allergy symptoms.
Antihistamines can reduce these allergy symptoms by blocking the action of histamine.
Antihistamines also have other effects. One of those effects is drowsiness.
Histamine doesn’t play any role in how colds produce symptoms.
Notable Valid Inferences
We’re looking for what must be true. This set of facts doesn’t produce any obvious inferences, so I’d mainly rely on process of elimination.
A
Pollen and other allergens do not cause colds.
Could be false. We know that histamine doesn’t play role in how colds produce symptoms. But what causes colds? We don’t know that pollens and allergens don’t cause colds.
B
Colds are more difficult to treat than allergies.
Could be false. We don’t know what’s more difficult to treat. Although antihistamines can reduce allergy symptoms, that doesn’t mean allergies are easier to treat than colds. Maybe antihistamines can also reduce cold symptoms, or there are other things that can treat colds.
C
Antihistamines, when taken alone, are ineffective against congestion caused by colds.
Could be false. We were told antihistamines have “other effects.” Those effects might include reducing cold symptoms; we don’t know. Although histamines aren’t part of cold symptoms, antihistamines might still reduce those symptoms through some means besides blocking histamines.
D
The sleeplessness that sometimes accompanies allergies can be effectively treated with antihistamines.
Could be false. We don’t know whether antihistamines can “effectively treat” sleeplessness. Although antihistamines can cause drowsiness, that doesn’t guarantee that they can treat sleeplessness.
E
Any effect antihistamines may have in reducing cold symptoms does not result from blocking the action of histamine.
Must be true. Histamines play no role in how colds produce symptoms. So, if antihistamines can reduce cold symptoms, it won’t be through blocking histamines. It would be through some other mechanism that’s related to producing cold symptoms.
Note: J.Y. says "sleepiness" instead of "sleeplessness" for answer choice (D). While his 'verbal typo' is wrong, the explanation given is still right.
Sales manager: Last year the total number of meals sold in our company’s restaurants was much higher than it was the year before. Obviously consumers find our meals desirable.
Accountant: If you look at individual restaurants, however, you find that the number of meals sold actually decreased substantially at every one of our restaurants that was in operation both last year and the year before. The desirability of our meals to consumers has clearly decreased, given that this group of restaurants—the only ones for which we have sales figures that permit a comparison between last year and the year before—demonstrates a trend toward fewer sales.
Summary
The company’s restaurants sold more meals last year than the year before. However, all the restaurants that have been open for the last two years sold fewer meals last year than the year before.
Notable Valid Inferences
There must be a restaurant that was open last year but not the year before. This would explain how, in the last two years, all the other restaurants had lower meal sales while the overall number of meals sold increased.
A
The company opened at least one new restaurant in the last two years.
This must be true. We know meal sales for restaurants open during both years decreased, and we also know that overall meal sales increased. This implies there are restaurants which had an increase in meal sales but which were not open during both years.
B
The company’s meals are less competitive than they once were.
This could be false. It could be that several new locations opened and customers who used to go to the existing locations began going to the new locations, which explains the decrease in individual restaurants’ sales. The meals may be more competitive than ever.
C
The quality of the company’s meals has not improved over the past two years.
This could be false. No information in the stimulus suggests the quality of the company’s meals has not improved over the past two years.
D
The prices of the company’s meals have changed over the past two years.
This could be false. No information in the stimulus suggests the price of the company’s meals has changed over the past two years.
E
The market share captured by the company’s restaurants fell last year.
This could be false. No information in the stimulus suggests the company’s market share decreased, especially as they sold more meals than the year before.
Summary
If any work of art exploits some of the musical characteristics of language, then it is a poem. A novel does not usually exploit the musical characteristics of language, but it may be a work of art. A symphony rarely involves language, but it may exploit the musical characteristics of sounds. A limerick is not art, but it may exploit some musical characteristics of language.
Strongly Supported Conclusions
If a novel is a work of art and exploits some of the musical characteristics of language, then it is a poem.
A
If a creation is neither a poem, nor a novel, nor a symphony, then it is not a work of art.
This answer is unsupported. We don’t know if a work of art must either be a poem, novel, or a symphony.
B
An example of so-called blank verse, which does not rhyme, is not really a poem.
This answer is unsupported. We don’t know what types of works, if any, are not poems. We only know from the stimulus a sufficient condition for a work being a poem.
C
If a novel exploits meter and rhyme while standing as a work of art, then it is both a novel and a poem.
This answer is strongly supported. We know from the stimulus that a work of art that exploits at least some of the musical characteristics of language are poems. Meter and rhyme are musical characteristics of language.
D
Limericks constitute a nonartistic type of poetry.
This answer is unsupported. We don’t know what conditions are sufficient for a work to be a nonartistic type of poetry.
E
If a symphony does not exploit the musical characteristics of sound, then it is not a work of art.
This answer is unsupported. We don’t know that if a symphony is a work of art, that it must exploit the musical characteristics of sound. We only know that symphonies rarely involve language and sometimes exploit the musical characteristics of sound.