Summarize Argument
The director argues that development costs for the new government-requested vaccine should be subsidized. This is because marketing vaccines is less likely to be profitable than any other pharmaceutical product, since vaccines only need to be administered once and thus sell less than products administered many times.
Notable Assumptions
The director assumes that if the government requests a product, that product should be subsidized to account for the missed profit the company would make from a more marketable product. The director also assumes that relatively lower sales of the vaccine wouldn’t be mitigated by its price or level of sales.
A
Vaccines are administered to many more people than are most other pharmaceutical products.
If the vaccines are administered more widely than most drugs, then the reach of sales would mitigate the fact vaccines are only administered once per patient. This suggests the vaccine will be profitable despite the director’s argument.
B
Many of the diseases that vaccines are designed to prevent can be successfully treated by medicines.
If the vaccine is only one of several pharmaceutical treatment options, it will necessarily be the least lucrative of those. This seems to support the director’s argument.
C
Pharmaceutical companies occasionally market products that are neither medicines nor vaccines.
We’re not interested about some third category of products. The stimulus deals with vaccines and medicines.
D
Pharmaceutical companies other than the Rexx Pharmaceutical Company produce vaccines.
Perhaps those companies should also be subsidized by the government if their vaccines are government-requested. We don’t have enough information here to affect the director’s argument.
E
The cost of administering a vaccine is rarely borne by the pharmaceutical company that manufactures that vaccine.
Even if the cost of administering the vaccine is passed on elsewhere, the manufacturing company still pays the production and marketing costs. These are the costs the director thinks should be subsidized.
Summary
French divers found a cave that is only accessible through an underwater tunnel. The cave was nearly filled with water and contains numerous stalagmites. Stalagmites are stony pillars that are form when drops of water repeatedly fall in the same spot on a cave floor.
Strongly Supported Conclusions
The cave was not always filled with water (because the stalagmites had to form from water dripping on the ground)
A
The Mediterranean Sea was at a higher level in the past than it is now.
This is too strong to support. While it is possible that the water in the Mediterranean Sea was lower in the past, this is too large of an assumption to make. All we know is that there is more water in the cave now.
B
The water level within the cave is higher now than it once was.
This is strongly supported. The cave is now entirely filled with water. Stalagmites only form when drops of water repeatedly land on a single spot. The water must have risen since the stalagmites were formed.
C
The French divers were the first people who knew that the tunnel leading to the cave existed.
There is no evidence for this anywhere in the stimulus. We are not told who discovered the cave first.
D
There was once an entrance to the cave besides the underwater tunnel.
There is no support for this anywhere in the stimulus. Nothing points to there being another entrance.
E
Seawater in the Mediterranean has a lower mineral content now than it had when the stalagmites were being formed.
This is far too strong of a statement to support. The mineral content of the water does not play any major role in these statements. You need to make a lot of assumptions to make this work
Arjun: I disagree! For example, unauthorized use of medical records systems in hospitals could damage data systems on which human lives depend, and therefore computer crimes also cause physical harm to people.
Speaker 1 Summary
Yolanda concludes that joyriding is more dangerous than accessing computers without authorization and manipulating the computer’s data or programs. This is because joyriding physically endangers people, whereas the computer crime only harms property.
Speaker 2 Summary
Arjun concludes that joyriding is not more dangerous than the computer crime. This is because unauthorized use of medical records systems might can causes physical harm to people by potentially damaging hospital data systems.
Objective
We’re looking for a point of disagreement. The speakers disagree on whether joyriding more dangerous than the computer crime. Yolanda thinks it is. Arjun thinks it’s not.
A
whether joyriding physically endangers human lives
Arjun doesn’t express an opinion. Arjun doesn’t say anything about joyriding or whether it endangers people physically.
B
whether the unauthorized manipulation of computer data involves damage to private property
Arjun doesn’t express an opinion or agrees. He points out that access to records systems could damage data systems. If data systems are property, then Arjun agrees that the computer crime can damage property. If data systems are not property, then he says nothing about property.
C
whether damage to physical property is more criminal than damage to intellectual property
Neither speaker has an opinion. The dispute is about which crime is more dangerous. Nobody connects the level of danger to what should be more or less criminal.
D
whether the unauthorized use of computers is as dangerous to people as is joyriding
This is a point of disagreement. Yolanda thinks the unauthorized use of computers is not as dangerous to people as is joyriding. Arjun thinks it is, because of the potential of computer access to damage hospital records, which in turn can damage people.
E
whether treating private property recklessly is ever a dangerous crime
Yolanda doesn’t express an opinion. She believes a crime that hurts only intellectual property isn’t as dangerous as joyriding. But she’s open to the computer crime being dangerous; just not as dangerous. And, she doesn’t say anything about crimes involving physical property.
Summary
Chronic back pain is often caused by a damaged spinal disk. Usually, pain develops long after the damage occurs. To further this point, it is estimated that a significant number of people have a damaged disk but no chronic pain. For these people, pain usually develops due to muscle weakness caused by a lack of exercise.
Strongly Supported Conclusions
A lack of exercise can contribute to the onset of chronic back pain.
Exercise may play a role in preventing chronic back pain.
Many people have damaged disks, but do not experience chronic pain.
A damaged spinal disk does not necessarily mean one will experience chronic pain.
Exercise may play a role in preventing chronic back pain.
Many people have damaged disks, but do not experience chronic pain.
A damaged spinal disk does not necessarily mean one will experience chronic pain.
A
Four out of five people over the age of 30 can be sure they will never develop chronic back pain.
Unsupported. This is too strong to conclude this about the remaining 4/5. This group could develop chronic back pain from sources other than a damaged disk. They could also have a damaged disk that DOES show chronic symptoms.
B
People who exercise their abdominal and spinal muscles regularly are sure to be free from chronic back pain.
Unsupported. This only talks about chronic back pain caused by damaged disks - we can’t draw conclusions about all back pain. Additionally, we know that pain in certain cases is generally caused by weakened muscles - not all. We cannot be sure.
C
Patients rarely suffer even mild and fleeting back pain at the time that a spinal disk first becomes herniated or degenerated.
Unsupported. The stimulus discusses chronic pain symptoms. Chronic is prolonged - we cannot conclude from this about acute pain that may or may not occur at the time of injury.
D
Doctors can accurately predict which people who do not have chronic back pain will develop it in the future.
Unsupported. We know that not everyone that has a damaged disk will develop back pain. While a lack of exercise may play a role, there is no evidence to support a method for being able to accurately predict who will develop back pain.
E
There is a strategy that can be effective in delaying or preventing the onset of pain from a currently asymptomatic herniated or degenerated spinal disk.
Strongly supported. Exercise is a strategy can be effective for delaying or preventing the onset of pain by preventing the deterioration of the abdominal and spinal muscles in those with a damaged disk.
Summarize Argument: Phenomenon-Hypothesis
The author hypothesizes that colic in infants is probably not caused by certain antibodies found in cow’s milk. Why not? Because lots of infants who only drink breast milk, and so are never exposed to cow’s milk, also get colic.
Notable Assumptions
The author is assuming that infants who drink only breast milk are not exposed to the same antibodies which are found in cow’s milk. The author is also assuming that if colic were caused by the antibodies in question, it couldn’t also be separately caused by another factor.
A
A study involving 500 sets of twins has found that if one infant has colic, its twin will probably also have colic.
This does not weaken the argument. Whether or not there’s a genetic factor to colic is irrelevant to whether the antibodies in cow’s milk can cause colic. Plus, this doesn’t even establish a genetic factor without more context about colic rates outside of twins.
B
Symptoms of colic generally disappear as infants grow older, whether the infants have been fed breast milk exclusively or have been fed infant formula containing cow’s milk.
This does not weaken the argument. Whether or not colic goes away as children grow up has no bearing on what the initial cause of colic could be. This has nothing to do with any possible link between colic and cow’s milk antibodies.
C
In a study of 5,000 infants who were fed only infant formula containing cow’s milk, over 4,000 of the infants never displayed any symptoms of colic.
This does not weaken the argument. Undermining the link between cow’s milk and colic would strengthen, not weaken. We also don’t know the overall likelihood of an infant getting colic, and without context these numbers don’t actually mean much either way.
D
When mothers of infants that are fed only breast milk eliminate cow’s milk and all products made from cow’s milk from their own diets, any colic symptoms that their infants have manifested quickly disappear.
This weakens the argument. Now we have a link between cow’s milk and colic, even in infants who only drink breast milk. This undermines the support provided to the author’s conclusion that cow’s milk antibodies probably do not cause colic.
E
Infants that are fed breast milk develop mature digestive systems at an earlier age than do those that are fed infant formulas, and infants with mature digestive systems are better able to tolerate certain proteins and antibodies found in cow’s milk.
This does not weaken the argument. It doesn’t matter if the infants who are only fed breast milk can tolerate cow’s milk or not: they’re not drinking cow’s milk, but they’re still getting colic. This doesn’t interfere with the link between the author’s evidence and hypothesis.
Mary: There are already too few part-time jobs for students who want to work, and simply requiring students to work will not create jobs for them.
Summarize Argument: Counter-Position
In response to Tom’s claim that high school students should be required to work part-time jobs, Mary points out that there are few part-time jobs available for students and a requirement to work will not create jobs.
Describe Method of Reasoning
Mary counters the position held by Tom. She does this by weakening a crucial assumption in Tom’s argument: that part-time jobs exist for students required to work them. By pointing out that there are already too few part-time jobs and that jobs will not be created by simply requiring students to work, Mary implies that high school students should not be required to work part-time jobs.
A
It analyzes an undesirable result of undertaking the course of action that Tom recommends.
Mary does not mention what would happen if students were required to work part-time jobs. Rather, she emphasizes the impossibility of instituting the requirement in the first place.
B
It argues that Tom has mistaken an unavoidable trend for an avoidable one.
Mary does not state that the trend of high school students graduating without vocational skills is unavoidable. Rather, she argues that Tom’s solution to the trend is not a viable solution.
C
It provides information that is inconsistent with an explicitly stated premise in Tom’s argument.
Mary does not provide information that contradicts the fact that employers are complaining or that vocational skills are best acquired on the job.
D
It presents a consideration that undercuts an assumption on which Tom’s argument depends.
The assumption Tom’s argument depends on is the assumption that part-time jobs are available for students if those students were required to work. Mary undercuts this assumption by pointing out that too few of these jobs exist to fulfill this requirement.
E
It defends an alternative solution to the problem that Tom describes.
Mary does not propose an alternative solution to the problem. Her argument is limited to addressing Tom’s proposed solution.
Summary
Creativity requires one to make changes to an existing theme. Every new idea/theme/discovery is built on existing themes.
The stimulus can be diagrammed as follows:
The stimulus can be diagrammed as follows:
Notable Valid Inferences
This is a MBT Except question. This means all the wrong answers can be logically inferred from the stimulus. The right answer cannot be logically inferred from the stimulus.
Some examples of valid logical inferences from the stimulus are: there are no new themes which are not built on existing themes, and if one lacks the ability to modify a theme, they lack creativity.
Some examples of valid logical inferences from the stimulus are: there are no new themes which are not built on existing themes, and if one lacks the ability to modify a theme, they lack creativity.
A
A lack of ability to manufacture a variation on a previous theme connotes a lack of creativity.
This must be true. We know the ability to manufacture variations on a theme is required for creativity. A lack of the latter implies a lack of the former. We can see this by taking the contrapositive of the first conditional statement.
B
No scientific idea is entirely independent of all other ideas.
This must be true. The stimulus tells us that every idea in science “is built upon a thousand related ideas.” Therefore, no idea can be entirely independent of all others.
C
Careful analysis of a specific variation can reveal previous themes of which it is a variation.
This must be true. The stimulus says that by carefully analyzing a new theme, we can see the previous themes from which it is derived. This is also what (C) is saying.
D
All great scientific discoverers have been able to manufacture a variation on a theme.
This must be true. All great scientific discoverers must have made at least one discovery, and we know all discoveries are variations of existing themes. Therefore, the discoverers must have been able to manufacture at least one variation on an existing theme.
E
Some new scientific discoveries do not represent, on a deep level, a variation on previous themes.
This must be false. (E) contradicts the final sentence of the stimulus (which is represented in the second conditional statement): all discoveries are a variation on a previous theme.
"Surprising" Phenomenon
Why do scientists expect crop yields to decrease when the crops seem to thrive in a warmer and wetter climate?
Objective
Any hypothesis that resolves this paradox must explain why crop yields are expected to decrease over the coming century. It may be a consequence of a climate that is consistently warmer and more humid, or it may be unrelated to climate.
A
Crop yields in southern Asia are expected to remain constant even after the average daily temperature and humidity there increase from recent levels.
This is information about southern Asia, not northern Asia. Rather than resolve the paradox, this states that the paradox does not exist in a different region.
B
Any increases in temperature and humidity would be accompanied by higher levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, which is vital to plant respiration.
This deepens the paradox by implying a warmer, more humid climate should result in greater crop yields. If plants rely on carbon dioxide to grow, and the impending changes will result in more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, then crops should benefit.
C
The climate in northern Asia has generally been too cool and dry in recent years for populations of many crop insect pests to become established.
This is a reason to expect crop yields will decrease. A consistently warm and humid climate will benefit pests, which over the long term may cause damage to crops that outweighs the potential benefits of a changing climate.
D
In many parts of Asia, the increased annual precipitation that would result from warmer and wetter climates would cause most edible plant species to flourish.
This deepens the paradox by further implying the changes in climate should cause crop yields to increase, not decrease. If a warmer, more humid climate causes edible plants to flourish, crops should not be expected to suffer.
E
The recent climate of northern Asia prevents many crops from being farmed there during the winter.
This does not explain why crop yields are expected to decrease over the next century. If changes in climate happen to allow more winter farming, that would be expected to increase yields, not diminish them.