Summarize Argument: Phenomenon-Hypothesis
The author concludes that confronting one’s fears probably increases one’s self-confidence. This is based on the fact that people who participate in risky sports have more self-confidence than people who don’t participate in risky sports
Notable Assumptions
The author assumes that the correlation between participation in risky sports and self-confidence is explained by participation in risky sports causing more self-confidence. This overlooks the possibility of other explanations for the correlation. In particular, it’s possible people who are already more self-confident are more likely to participate in risky sports.
A
Often those who suffer from fears such as a fear of heights either do not know that they suffer from those fears or do not know the extent to which they suffer from them.
The author never suggested that everyone who suffers from a fear of heights will engage in activities to try to confront those fears. Some people might not be aware and might not do anything to confront their unknown fears.
B
In general, people who currently participate in risky sports had above-average self-confidence even before participating in any risky sport.
This raises the possibility that the causal relationship between risky sports and self-confidence is reversed. People who start off with higher self confidence are more likely to participate in risky sports, which could explain the correlation we observe.
C
Most people who refrain from engaging in risky sports refrain from doing so for reasons other than a fear of death or injury.
This has no clear impact on the argument. If anything, this might strengthen the argument by suggesting that it’s not a lack of confidence that causes people to choose not to participate in risky sports.
D
Participating in risky sports is not the only way to confront one’s fears.
The author never suggested that risky sports are the only way to confront one’s fears. We know people who do risky sports often do so to confront their fears, but maybe people confront fears in other ways, too. This doesn’t suggest risky sports might not increase confidence.
E
Most of those who do not participate in risky sports believe that they lack the capacity to excel in such activities.
This has no clear impact on the argument. This doesn’t provide an alternate explanation for the correlation between risky sports and higher self-confidence, nor does it provide evidence suggesting risky sports might not be the cause of higher self-confidence.
Suarez: Would you say the same about nonviolent crimes, such as tax evasion? Surely mandatory penalties are a useful deterrent in these cases. At any rate, I am confident that mandatory sentences prevent most people who would otherwise physically harm others from doing so.
Speaker 1 Summary
Huang claims that, to reduce violent crime, we should address the root causes of violence instead of imposing mandatory sentences. As support, Huang explains that most people who commit violent crimes don’t think about the likely punishment. Also, people who don’t commit violent crimes just aren’t inclined to. This indicates that mandatory sentences don’t make much difference.
Speaker 2 Summary
Suarez argues towards an implied conclusion that mandatory sentences are a useful deterrent. To support this, Suarez says that mandatory penalties do deter nonviolent crimes (implying a possible analogous effect for violent crimes). Suarez also claims that mandatory sentences prevent most physical violence from happening.
Objective
We’re looking for a disagreement. Huang and Suarez disagree about whether mandatory sentences deter violent crime.
A
the best way to reduce violent crime is to address the root causes of violence
Huang says that we should reduce violent crime by addressing the root causes of violence, which could be taken as agreement with this claim. However, Suarez never talks about the merit of addressing the root causes of violence.
B
people who commit violent crimes deserve harsh punishment
Neither speaker talks about whether people deserve punishment. Their debate is about the practical effect of mandatory sentences, not the moral aspect of deservingness.
C
people who commit violent crimes carefully consider how they will be punished for their crimes
Huang explicitly disagrees with this claim, but Suarez doesn’t give an opinion. Although Suarez thinks that mandatory sentences can deter violent crime, that’s not the same as saying that potential offenders always carefully consider potential punishments.
D
mandatory sentences will deter most people who might otherwise commit violent crimes
Huang disagrees with this but Suarez agrees, making this the point of disagreement. Huang’s argument indicates that mandatory sentences don’t have a deterrent effect on violent crime. Suarez, however, directly states a belief that mandatory sentences prevent most violence.
E
severe penalties reduce the incidence of tax evasion
Suarez most likely agrees with this, but Huang never talks about nonviolent crimes such as tax evasion. We don’t know what Huang thinks about the possible deterrent effect of severe penalties in such cases.
Summarize Argument
Metallic mirrors can’t be used when minimizing energy loss is important. Why not? The mirrors absorb light and waste energy. This is because electrons in the metallic mirror move when light strikes it. This uses energy and makes the reflected image dimmer.
Identify Conclusion
The conclusion is the practical application of the process described: “metallic mirrors cannot be used in applications in which minimizing energy loss is important”
A
Metallic mirrors reduce the effectiveness of high-powered lasers.
Lasers are just an example the author uses of applications where minimizing energy loss is important. The conclusion does not center on these devices alone.
B
Part of the light falling on metallic mirrors tends to be absorbed by them.
This is part of the premises - reasoning for why these mirrors should not be used where minimizing energy loss is important.
C
High-powered lasers require mirrors that conserve energy.
The conclusion centers on these mirrors not being used where minimizing energy loss is important. It does not talk about what mirrors should be used, nor does it focus on lasers alone.
D
A tendency to waste energy is the most significant disadvantage of metallic mirrors.
The stimulus just discusses that the mirrors do waste energy. It does not draw conclusions about how significant the disadvantage is.
E
Metallic mirrors are unsuitable for applications where it is crucial to minimize energy loss.
This accurately paraphrases the conclusion. The author establishes that they are unsuitable and explains why.
Summarize Argument: Phenomenon-Hypothesis
The author hypothesizes that the work done in Department F causes higher stress levels than work done in other departments. This is because workers in Department F are more often afflicted by a stress-related syndrome.
Notable Assumptions
The author assumes that workers in Department F are succumbing to the syndrome due to stress, rather than due to some other reason related to their work. He also assumes that workers in Department F aren’t being tested more frequently for the syndrome in question. If workers in Department F were tested more frequently, then that would explain the discrepancy. Last, he assumes that Department F isn’t simply comprised of people who happen to be predisposed towards the syndrome.
A
Department F has more employees than any other department in the company.
We care about relative rates. This talks about raw totals.
B
Some experts believe that the syndrome can be caused by various factors, only one of which is high stress.
We already know this is true. The author says the syndrome is “often attributed to stress.”
C
Many workers who transfer into Department F from elsewhere in the company soon begin to develop the syndrome.
Department F isn’t just comprised of people who happen to be affected by the syndrome. People in fact develop the syndrome once they transfer into Department F.
D
It is relatively common for workers in the transportation industry to suffer from the syndrome.
We don’t care how common it is among transportation employees, generally. We’re interested in the relative rates between departments.
E
Job-related stress has been the most frequently cited cause for dissatisfaction among workers at the company.
We need something that differentiates Department F from the rest of the company. This doesn’t do that.
Summarize Argument
The author concludes that if the most populous species in the pond is the bullhead catfish, then the fishing guide must believe that the species of fish in the pond that has adapted best to living in polluted water is the bullhead catfish. This is based on the fact that the fishing guide says that the most populous fish species in the pond is also the one that has adapted best to living in polluted water.
Identify and Describe Flaw
The author assumes that the fishing guide would be aware of the fact that the most populous fish species in the pond is the bullhead catfish, if that is indeed the most populous fish species in the pond. This overlooks the possibility that the fishing guide might have some other species in mind when he says that the most populous fish species is the one that has adapted best.
A
takes for granted that the local fishing guide believes that Stillwater Pond has been polluted by farm runoff for years
This is not an assumption, because the guide’s belief about how long the water has been polluted doesn’t affect the relationship between the most populous species and being the best adapted.
B
fails to take into account the possibility that the catfish in Stillwater Pond had to adapt very little to survive in polluted water
Whether the catfish had to adapt very little doesn’t affect the possibility that it’s still the most adapted. A fish can be the most adapted even if it hasn’t adapted much. Also, the argument only concerns belief about what’s most adapted, not what is actually the most adapted.
C
fails to take into account the possibility that the recent studies on fish populations in Stillwater Pond are inaccurate
The conclusion begins by saying “if” the studies are accurate. This conditions the rest of the conclusion on the hypothetical situation in which the studies are accurate. Whether they are actually accurate is irrelevant to this hypothetical situation.
D
fails to take into account the possibility that the local fishing guide mistakenly believes that some fish species other than the bullhead catfish is the most populous fish species in Stillwater Pond
If this possibility were true, then even if the catfish is the most populous species, the guide might not believe that the catfish is the most adapted. The guide might simply have a different species in mind, even if that species isn’t actually the most populous or most adapted.
E
takes for granted that Stillwater Pond has only one species of catfish living in it
The author doesn’t assume there’s only one species of catfish in the pond. The recent studies happen to identify the bullheat catfish as the most numerous species, but there can be other catfish species that are not as numerous.
Myungsook: I disagree. Converting observations into numbers is the hardest and last task; it can be done only when you have thoroughly explored the observations themselves.
Speaker 1 Summary
Clarissa argues that mathematics has been necessary to allow the natural sciences to progress. To support this, Clarissa says that scientific observations are only worth attention if they are stated in precise, quantitative terms. (It seems that this requires mathematics in some way.)
Speaker 2 Summary
Myungsook disagrees, and instead comes to the implied conclusion that observations can be worth serious attention even without being stated in precise quantitative terms. To support this idea, Myungsook tells us that observations can only be put in quantitative terms after being “thoroughly explored,” which would reasonably require paying attention to them.
Objective
A
mathematics has been a highly significant factor in the advance of the natural sciences
Clarissa would agree with this claim, but Myungsook doesn’t disagree. Myungsook doesn’t state an opinion one way or the other about the importance of mathematics to the natural sciences.
B
converting observations into quantitative terms is usually easy
Myungsook would disagree with this, but Clarissa never states an opinion. Clarissa actually doesn’t say anything about the easiness or difficulty of converting an observation into quantitative terms.
C
not all observations can be stated precisely in quantitative terms
The speakers don’t talk about this. Neither Clarissa nor Myungsook mentions anything about the limitations that may exist on what observations can be stated in quantitative terms, if any.
D
successfully doing natural science demands careful consideration of observations not stated precisely in quantitative terms
Clarissa disagrees, but Myungsook agrees: this is the disagreement. Clarissa says that scientists should only think about quantitatively stated observations. Myungsook, however, says scientists need to think about observations before they can be stated quantitatively.
E
useful scientific theories require the application of mathematics
Clarissa would probably agree with this. Myungsook, on the other hand, never talks about how necessary mathematics might be to science.
Cultural anthropological theory tends to fall into two camps. One focuses on everyday social behavior as a system that has developed in response to human needs in a given environment. The other rejects this approach, focusing on the systems of meanings by which thoughts, rituals, and mythology in a society are structured. Cultural anthropologists, however, should employ both approaches, and also attend to a third, often neglected dimension: the view of a community as a set of individuals whose actions constitute the actual stuff of everyday life.
Summary
Cultural anthropologists generally have two camps of theories. One approach focuses on everyday behavior as a system that develops in response to human needs. The other approach focuses on the systems of meanings by which thoughts, rituals, and mythology in a society are structured. However, anthropologists should employ both approaches in addition to a third. The third approach views a community as a set of individuals whose actions compromise every day life.
Strongly Supported Conclusions
Even if some anthropologists disagree, their approaches to anthropological theory are not necessarily incompatible.
A
Patterns of social behavior have meaning only when considered from the point of view of the community.
Unsupported. The author isn’t suggesting that patterns of behavior can only be understood from a community’s point of view. Rather, the author is arguing for anthropologists to consider this view in addition to the dominant camps.
B
Cultural anthropologists too often rely on a conception of human needs that excludes the notion of community.
Unsupported. We know that the first camp focuses on human needs, but we don’t know whether their conception of needs excludes all notion of community. All we can say is that anthropologists neglect one particular view of community: the view recommended by the author.
C
Cultural anthropological theorists who focus on issues of meaning overlook the humanity of their individual subjects.
Unsupported. The second camp focuses on systems of meanings, but nothing suggests that this focus comes at the cost of overlooking anyone’s humanity. The topic of subjects’ humanity isn’t raised by the author, but that doesn’t mean the anthropologists overlook it.
D
Systems of behavior can be understood only by experiencing the environments to which they respond.
Unsupported. We know that some anthropologists understand systems of behavior in light of human response, but we don’t know if that is the only way for this analysis. Stating that it is the “only” way is too strong.
E
Disagreement among cultural anthropological theorists does not necessarily imply that their approaches are incompatible.
Strongly supported. The author states that although these anthropologists disagree over their approaches, they should actually employ both approaches, as well as a third. This implies that at least these three approaches are all compatible with each other.