A
Red devil crayfish dig chambers that remain filled with water even when the surrounding wetlands dry up.
B
Red devil crayfish present no threat to adult Hine’s emerald dragonflies.
C
The varied diet of the red devil crayfish does not include any animal species that prey on dragonfly larvae.
D
Red devil crayfish are found in many more locations than Hine’s emerald dragonflies are.
E
Populations of red devil crayfish in a wetland do not drop significantly if the local population of Hine’s emerald dragonflies dies out.
In Lawgic, this looks like:
P1. calm mind -s→ lower stress -s→ lower BP
P2. exercise -m→ calm mind
In Lawgic, this means combining the premises listed above to look like:
P1. exercise -m→ calm mind -s→ lower stress -s→ lower BP
A
For at least some people, having lower blood pressure has at least some tendency to cause their stress levels to be reduced.
B
Most people with high blood pressure can lower their blood pressure by reducing their stress levels.
C
Most people who do not exercise regularly have higher stress levels as a result.
D
Engaging in exercise can directly lower one’s blood pressure.
E
For at least some people, engaging in exercise can cause their stress levels to be reduced.
A
In cities where there are high concentrations of many air pollutants but little if any soot in the air, the frequency of the ailment is just as high, on average, as it is in cities where there are large amounts of soot in the air.
B
If the ailment rarely occurs except in cities in which there are large amounts of soot in the air, then the soot is probably the cause of the ailment.
C
In each of the cities where there are large amounts of soot in the air but little other air pollution, the frequency of the ailment is at least as high as it is anywhere else.
D
If high concentrations of many different pollutants in a city’s air are correlated with a high frequency of the ailment among that city’s population, then it is possible that two or more of those pollutants each causally contributes to the ailment.
E
In cities in which there are high concentrations of many air pollutants, there are generally also high concentrations of other forms of pollution that are very likely to contribute causally to the ailment.
Vacuum cleaner salesperson: To prove that this Super XL vacuum cleaner is better than your old vacuum cleaner, I ran your old vacuum once over this dirty carpet. Then I ran the Super XL over the same area. All that dirt that the Super XL picked up is dirt your old vacuum left behind, proving the Super XL is the better vacuum.
Summarize Argument
The salesperson concludes that the Super XL is the better vacuum because it picked up dirt that the old vacuum missed after both were used on the same area of carpet. The Super XL was used second.
Identify and Describe Flaw
The salesperson's argument is vulnerable to criticism because the vacuums weren't tested under the same conditions. Just because the Super XL picked up some dirt that the old vacuum missed doesn't necessarily suggest that the Super XL is better. In fact, the Super XL might have missed just as much dirt if it had been used first. The salesperson should have tested both vacuums individually to compare how much dirt they each collected on their first pass over equally dirty areas of carpet.
A
ignores the possibility that dirt remained in the carpet even after the Super XL had been used in the test
The salesperson never assumes that the Super XL picked up all the dirt in the carpet. Presumably at least a little bit of dirt remained in the carpet after the Super XL was used, but this doesn't change the fact that it picked up dirt that the old vacuum left behind.
B
takes for granted that the Super XL will still perform better than the old vacuum cleaner when it is the same age as the old vacuum cleaner
The salesperson argues that the Super XL is the better vacuum right now. He never assumes that it will still perform better in 10 years.
C
takes for granted that because the Super XL outperforms one vacuum cleaner it is the best vacuum cleaner available
The salesperson never claimed that the Super XL is the best vacuum cleaner available, just that it’s better than the old vacuum.
D
ignores the possibility that the amount of dirt removed in the test by the old vacuum cleaner is greater than the amount of dirt removed by the Super XL
The salesperson’s argument isn’t about which vacuum picked up the greater amount of dirt. He never actually assumes that the Super XL picked up more dirt. Instead, he argues that the Super XL is better because it picked up dirt that the old vacuum left behind.
E
ignores the possibility that if the Super XL had been used first it would have left behind just as much dirt as did the old vacuum cleaner
The salesperson didn’t test the vacuums under the same conditions. He argues that the Super XL is better because it picked up dirt that the old vacuum missed on its first pass. But it’s possible that the Super XL might’ve left behind just as much dirt if it had been tested first.
A
Some people argue that the supply-chain problem is so far in the future that there is no need to address it now.
B
It would be irresponsible to postpone changes to the vendor contracts just because the supply chain will not develop weaknesses for a long time.
C
If no changes are made to the vendor contracts, the supply chain will eventually develop significant weaknesses.
D
In planning to meet its future obligations, a company should follow the same practices that are appropriate for an individual who is planning for retirement.
E
Financial planners should advise their clients to save money for retirement only if retirement is many years away.
Worldwide, more books were sold last year than in any previous year. In particular, there were more cookbooks sold. For the first time ever, most of the cookbooks sold were not intended for beginners. Indeed, more cookbooks than ever were purchased by professional cooks. However, one of the few books available on every continent is a cookbook written for beginners, entitled Problem-Free Cooking.
Summary
Last year, more books were sold worldwide than ever before, especially cookbooks. For the first time ever, most of these cookbooks were not intended for beginners. In fact, more cookbooks than ever were bought by professional cooks. However, one cookbook for beginners, Problem-Free Cooking, is one of the few books available on every continent.
Strongly Supported Conclusions
There could be an increasing demand for professional-level cookbooks.
There were more cookbooks sold last year that were not intended for beginners than in any other year.
There are few cookbooks that are available on every continent.
A
Last year there were more cookbooks sold that were not intended for beginners than in any previous year.
Strongly supported. More cookbooks were sold last year and, for the first time ever, the majority of these cookbooks were not intended for beginners. Thus, there were more cookbooks sold last year that were not intended for beginners than in any previous year.
B
The best-selling cookbook last year was a cookbook that was intended for beginners.
Unsupported. Problem-Free Cooking is intended for beginners and is available on every continent, but we do not know that it was the best-selling cookbook last year. We also do not know whether any other cookbook intended for beginners was the best-selling cookbook last year.
C
Sales of cookbooks intended for beginners were lower last year than in previous years.
Unsupported. Sales of cookbooks not intended for beginners surpassed the sales of cookbooks intended for beginners. But that does not mean that the sales of cookbooks intended for beginners were lower last year than in previous years.
D
Most of the cookbooks purchased last year that were not intended for beginners were purchased by professional cooks.
Unsupported. We know that professional cooks purchased more cookbooks than ever. But we do not know whether most of the cookbooks that were not intended for beginners were purchased by professional cooks. Perhaps beginners still purchased lots of non-beginner books.
E
Problem-Free Cooking sold more copies last year than did any cookbook written for professional cooks.
Unsupported. Problem-Free Cooking is available on every continent, but we do not know how many copies it sold or whether it sold more copies last year than any cookbook written for professional cooks.
A
How large is the class of drugs that increase the risk of developing osteoporosis?
B
Why are immune system disorders treated with drugs that increase the risk of developing osteoporosis?
C
Is the new drug more expensive than the drug that helps to preserve existing bone?
D
How long has the drug that helps to preserve existing bone been in use?
E
To what extent does the new drug retain its efficacy when used in combination with the other drugs?
Sodium helps dissolve fluoride into groundwater.