Summarize Argument: Counter-Position
The author concludes that we should not use nutritional supplements in treating the disease. This is based on the fact that Dr Sullivan, who argues in favor of using nutritional supplements to treat the disease, has a personal interest in making that argument, because he’s paid to endorse a line of nutritional supplements.
Identify and Describe Flaw
The author inappropriately attacks the source rather than the merits. Rather than presenting reasons that the nutritional supplement should not be used to treat the disease, the author simply attacks Dr. Sullivan’s motivations in encouraging others to use nutritional supplements. But his self-interest isn’t relevant to whether nutritional supplements are a good idea for treating the disease.
A
relies on two different meanings of the term “supplement” to draw a conclusion
The word “supplement” means the same thing throughout. It’s a dietary addition that one takes for nutrition.
B
relies solely on an appeal to an authority whose trustworthiness should not necessarily be taken for granted
The author’s argument does not rely on an authority. The author never says, “X says we shouldn’t use nutritional supplements, so that’s why we shouldn’t use them.” The author criticizes the source of a claim, but that’s not a reliance on authority.
C
appeals to people’s emotions regarding the treatment of disease rather than to the efficacy of the two approaches to treatment
The author doesn’t appeal to emotions. The author simply points out the self-interest of Dr. Sullivan. There’s no indication that this is supposed to lead to an emotional reaction.
D
criticizes Dr. Sullivan’s motives for holding a position rather than addressing the position itself
The author criticizes Dr. Sullivan’s motives (self-interested due to endorsement of nutritional supplements). But the author doesn’t address why nutritional supplements shouldn’t be used in treating the disease.
E
fails to justify its presumption that nutritional supplements cannot be used in conjunction with other treatments
The author doesn’t assume that nutritional supplements can’t be used in connection with other treatments. The reasoning isn’t, “We should use other treatments, so we can’t use nutritional supplements.”
Summary
To stop the production of counterfeit bills, it’s necessary that at least some images on real bills be hard to measure accurately. This is because accurate measurements are involved in at least some counterfeiting methods.
Missing Connection
The conclusion is that interfering with measurement is necessary to stop counterfeiting. But the premise just tells us that measurements can be involved in the process, without saying how important those measurements actually are. That’s not good enough to reach such a strong conclusion. Couldn’t there be other ways to stop counterfeiting besides dealing with the measurement issue?
If we knew that making accurate measurements was sufficient, all on its own, for counterfeiting, then the conclusion would properly follow. In that case, dealing with the measurement issue would have to be part of counterfeit prevention!
A
Today’s copying technology is sophisticated enough to replicate almost any paper product with great precision.
This doesn’t explain why measurement is so important to the counterfeiting process. We still have no reason to think that interfering with measurement is the only way to stop counterfeiting.
B
Once the images printed on a banknote have been measured accurately, there is no further impediment to the banknote’s being exactly replicated.
This says that being able to make accurate measurements is sufficient to be able to counterfeit a bill. This is simply the contrapositive of the conclusion! So assuming (B) guarantees that the conclusion follows.
C
Governments have better printing technology available to them than counterfeiters do.
This doesn’t explain why measurement is so important to the counterfeiting process. We still have no reason to think that interfering with measurement is the only way to stop counterfeiting.
D
Few countries produce banknotes with images that are difficult for counterfeiters to measure accurately.
What countries actually do is irrelevant. The conclusion is conditional, meaning it’s entirely hypothetical: if counterfeiting is to be stopped, then images must be hard to measure. Whether any countries happen to follow that advice has no effect on the validity of that advice.
E
New designs in banknotes generally lead to decreases in the amount of counterfeit currency in circulation.
This doesn’t explain why measurement is so important to the counterfeiting process. We still have no reason to think that interfering with measurement is the only way to stop counterfeiting.
Summarize Argument
The author concludes that the Andersen family’s real income must have increased over the last 5 years. This is based on the fact that the real average income for families has risen over the last five years, and this year the Andersen family’s income is average for families.
Identify and Describe Flaw
The author overlooks the possibility that the Andersen family’s income hasn’t changed in five years. Although they are at the average for family’s this year, that doesn’t mean they experienced an increase in income from previous years. They might have been above average in previous years, and the nation’s average income for families has simply caught up to their income.
A
ambiguously uses the term “average” in two different senses
“Average” in “average income for families” means the same thing as “average” in “income is average for families.” It refers to the figure taken by adding up the total income for all families and dividing the figure by the number of families.
B
fails to take into account inflation with respect to the Andersen family’s income
The argument concerns “real” income, which is defined as income that is “adjusted for inflation.” So the argument already takes into account inflation.
C
overlooks the possibility that most families’ incomes are below average
This possibility doesn’t undermine the argument, because the author never assumed that most families incomes are not below average. The argument is based on the average income for families. Reliance on that average doesn’t imply a belief about “most” families’ income.
D
fails to consider the possibility that the Andersen family’s real income was above average in the recent past
This shows why the Andersens’ income might not have increased. They are at the average for today, but that doesn’t imply they had a lower income in the past. They might have been above average in the past, and the average income has increased to their level.
E
presumes, without providing justification, that the government makes no errors in gathering accurate estimates of family income
The author doesn’t assume that the government never makes errors in gathering estimates for family income. Maybe, for example, the data for one family was reported incorrectly. That wouldn’t necessarily have significant impacts on the overall average income calculation.
Jung-Su: Although artists, like musicians, may reject literal representation, makers of abstract art choose to represent the purely formal features of objects, which are discovered only when everyday perspectives are rejected. Thus, whatever others might come to say, abstract art is part of the artistic mainstream.
Speaker 1 Summary
Abstract art will eventually been seen as an aberration. Why? Because abstract art does not represent. Representation is necessary for art.
Speaker 2 Summary
Abstract art is art. Why? Because it represents purely formal features of objects.
Objective
We need a statement that Richard and Jung-Su disagree on. They disagree on whether abstract art is representational. Richard thinks abstract art is not representational. Jung-Su thinks that abstract art is representational because it represents formal features of objects.
A
makers of abstract art reject literal representation
Both speakers agree with this statement. Richard thinks this is the reason why abstract art will eventually be seen as an aberration. Jung-Su concedes that abstract art doesn’t literally represent objects, but represents purely formal features.
B
the fundamental requirement of art is that it represent
Jung-Su does not express an opinion on this statement. Jung-Su does not counter Richard’s claim that art must represent something.
C
musicians may reject literal representation
Richard does not express an opinion on this statement. Richard’s comments are limited to abstract art.
D
abstract art will be seen as an aberration
Jung-Su does not express an opinion on this statement. Jung-Su does not comment on the future viewpoint surrounding abstract art. Her comments are limited to how abstract art could be viewed now.
E
abstract art is representational
Richard and Jung-Su disagree on this statement. Richard disagrees and thinks that abstract art is not art because it lacks the representation requirement of art. Jung-Su thinks abstract art satisfies the representation requirement by representing formal features.
Summary
A manager can’t make employees perform their best by threatening to fire them or offering them money for being productive. Instead, employees must want to do a good job for the sake of doing a good job. One way to achieve this is by giving employees responsibility, especially for decisions that the manager used to make.
Strongly Supported Conclusions
In some situations, some external motivators are less effective than some internal motivators.
In some situations, a manager can give up some of her own responsibilities and control in order to more effectively motivate her employees.
Delegating responsibility to employees can lead them to develop a desire to do a good job, which can lead them to perform better at work.
In some situations, a manager can give up some of her own responsibilities and control in order to more effectively motivate her employees.
Delegating responsibility to employees can lead them to develop a desire to do a good job, which can lead them to perform better at work.
A
Increased responsibility can improve a person’s sense of how power should be used.
Unsupported. Increased responsibility may cause employees to want to do a good job for the sake of doing a good job, but we have no information as to how this might relate to a person’s “sense of how power should be used.”
B
It is often the case that the desire for prestige is more powerful than the desire for job security.
Unsupported. The stimulus says that threatening employees with termination is not an effective way of making them perform well. But it does not compare this to an employee’s desire for prestige or discuss whether the desire for job security or prestige is more powerful.
C
In some cases one’s effectiveness in a particular role can be enhanced by a partial relinquishing of control.
Strongly supported. This is illustrated by the situation in the passage: In this case, the manager’s effectiveness in making employees want to do a good job is enhanced by giving those employees responsibility that used to belong to the manager (i.e. relinquishing some control).
D
People who carry out decisions are in the best position to determine what those decisions should be.
Unsupported. We do not know who is being referred to as the “people who carry out decisions” here or which decisions are being referenced. This is too vague to be an example of something that is illustrated by the passage.
E
Business works best by harnessing the self-interest of individuals to benefit the company as a whole.
Unsupported. The stimulus doesn’t discuss which methods make business “work best.” It only talks about one of the best methods to get employees to want to do a good job for its own sake. Also, we don’t know that anyone is motivated by self-interest in the situation described.
Summarize Argument
The author concludes that eating fish can lower one’s cholesterol. This is based on a study comparing a group that ate fish and a group that didn’t eat fish. The fish-eating group ended up with lower cholesterol levels than the other group, even though the two groups started off with similar cholesterol levels.
Identify Argument Part
The referenced text is part of the support for the author’s conclusion. It helps to eliminate the possibility that the fish-group’s lower cholesterol is just a function of that group starting with lower cholesterol.
A
It is offered as an objection to the main conclusion of the argument.
The referenced text supports the conclusion.
B
It expresses the main conclusion of the argument.
The referenced text supports the conclusion, but it’s not the conclusion itself.
C
It rules out an alternative explanation of the data collected in the study.
This accurately describes the role of the referenced text. The fact the groups started with similar cholesterol levels eliminates the explanation that the fish-group just started out with lower cholesterol levels.
D
It provides background information on the purpose of the study.
The referenced text supports the conclusion. It’s not just background information.
E
It introduces an alternative explanation of the phenomenon described in the main conclusion.
The referenced text supports the author’s conclusion. It does not introduce an alternate explanation.