Summarize Argument: Phenomenon-Hypothesis
Scientists hypothesize male sage grouse inflate their air sacs during a courting ritual so that female sage grouse can select healthy mates. They provide no evidence for this claim.
Notable Assumptions
The scientists assume that inflated air sacs either signify health in themselves, or demonstrate some feature that signify health. They also assume female sage grouse can determine which males are healthy and which aren’t. Lastly, the scientists assume the female sage grouse are more likely to choose the healthy males.
A
Some female sage grouse mate with unhealthy male sage grouse.
This is irrelevant. Perhaps those were the only unhealthy male sage grouse left.
B
When diseased male sage grouse were treated with antibiotics, they were not selected by female sage grouse during the courtship ritual.
We have no idea what effect antibiotics have.
C
Some healthy male sage grouse do not inflate their air sacs as part of the courtship ritual.
Are those males chosen by the females? We would need to know in order for this to be a strengthener.
D
Male sage grouse are prone to parasitic infections that exhibit symptoms visible on the birds’ air sacs.
Females can note parasitic infections when male sage grouse inflate their air sacs. Thus, they are quite likely looking to see which males are healthy during the courting ritual.
E
The sage grouse is commonly afflicted with a strain of malaria that tends to change as the organism that causes it undergoes mutation.
This has nothing to do with air sacs.
Summarize Argument
In incredibly high-flown language, the commentator concludes that modern culture threatens national identities. This is because fringe movements are becoming more prominent, and fringe movements contribute to the erosion of traditional hallmarks of national cultures—dogmas, religions, ideologies, and so on.
Notable Assumptions
In order for modern culture to threaten national identities, the commentator must assume that national identities are contingent on shared dogmas, religions, ideologies, etc. The commentator must also assume that fringe movements are part of modern culture rather than reactions to that same culture.
A
New national identities are often forged out of conflicts among diverse groups.
If the identities that emerge are “new,” then modern culture indeed is a threat to current national identities.
B
A stable national identity is typically a composite of a staggering number of subcultures.
National identities don’t rely on shared institutions. Instead, national cultures are a collection of subcultures. Modern culture thus doesn’t necessarily challenge national cultures, at least not by eroding institutions.
C
The rate of cultural change in most countries will soon change drastically.
We have no idea how that rate of cultural change will change. Besides, this tells us nothing about the effects of modern culture.
D
It is preferable to have a pluralistic rather than a monolithic national culture.
We don’t care about what’s preferable. We’re interested in how modern culture changes national identities.
E
A culture with a solidified national identity tends to have more social problems than one without such an identity.
Like (D), we don’t care about whether national identities are a good or a bad thing. We’re only interested in how modern culture changes national identities.
Summarize Argument: Counter-Position
The author argues that mandatory minimum sentences for certain crimes are necessary in order to restrict judges’ discretion in deciding sentences. Why is restricting judicial discretion necessary? Because, says the author, people who rely on their judgment are often arbitrary and irrational, and there’s no reason to think judges are any different. So we can infer that judges are likely to use their discretion arbitrarily and irrationally, hence the need to restrict it.
Identify Conclusion
The conclusion is the author’s statement that restricting discretion “is precisely why mandatory minimum sentences are necessary.”
A
People believe that they have good judgment but never do.
Firstly, the use of “never” here makes this much stronger than what the author actually says. Secondly, even if this was stated, the author’s claim about people’s belief in their judgment is not supported by anything else, so not the conclusion.
B
Mandatory minimum sentences are too mechanical and reduce judicial discretion.
Like (C), the author argues against this statement. Some judges believe this, but the author’s argument is designed to prove the opposite, that mandatory minima are a necessary restriction.
C
Judges should be free to exercise their own judgment.
Like (B), the author argues against this statement. The point the argument is trying to make is that judges’ freedom of judgment should be limited because they may be arbitrary and irrational.
D
Judges are often arbitrary and irrational.
This can be inferred from the author’s argument, but the idea that judges are often arbitrary and irrational acts as support for the claim that restricting judges is necessary. That makes this an implicit sub-conclusion, not the main conclusion.
E
Mandatory minimum sentences are needed to help prevent judicial arbitrariness.
This is a good paraphrase of the author’s conclusion. The argument leads us to believe that judges would likely act arbitrarily without restriction, thereby supporting this conclusion, that mandatory minimum sentences are a necessary measure.
Summary
Jablonski was disturbed by car accident statistics and wanted to encourage better driving for young drivers. She owns a car dealership and has donated cars to driver education programs for several years. As a result, some members of the community have purchased cars from Jablonski’s dealership in order to show support for her.
Strongly Supported Conclusions
Some actions that are intended to benefit others can have positive impacts on the person performing that action.
A
The only way to reduce traffic accidents is through driver education programs.
This answer is unsupported. Saying that driver education programs are the “only” way to reduce traffic accidents is too strong. We don’t even know from the stimulus if Jablonski’s actions actually reduced traffic accidents.
B
Altruistic actions sometimes have positive consequences for those who perform them.
This action is strongly supported. Jablonski donated cars from her dealership for a public benefit and ended up benefitting from members of the community buying cars from her.
C
Young drivers are the group most likely to benefit from driver education programs.
This answer is unsupported. Saying that young drivers are “most likely to benefit” from these programs is too strong.
D
It is usually in one’s best interest to perform actions that benefit others.
This answer is unsupported. We don’t know whether these actions are “usually” in one’s best interest. The stimulus only covers one example of Jablonski donating cars.
E
An action must have broad community support if it is to be successful.
This answer is unsupported. We don’t know from the stimulus if broad community support is required for an action to be successful. We also don’t know whether Jablonski was successful through her actions to reduce traffic accidents.