"Surprising" Phenomenon
Students found computers helpful for studying arithmetic, but not so helpful for studying other subjects.
Objective
A satisfactory hypothesis must state a difference between the study of arithmetic and the other subjects. This difference may relate to the subjects themselves or to the way computers are used to study those subjects, and it must result in computer-assisted education being more useful for arithmetic than for the other subjects.
A
Students in these schools began reading and doing arithmetic before learning to use computers.
This fails to draw a distinction between arithmetic and the other subjects. It does not state that students started learning science and writing after first using computers, so it does not explain why computers were more helpful for learning arithmetic than for other subjects.
B
Of the disciplines and skills mentioned, the exactness of arithmetic makes it most suitable to computer-assisted education.
This explains the success of computer-assisted learning in arithmetic. Arithmetic is the best-suited for computer-based education, and unsurprisingly, students have found computers most helpful for studying that subject.
C
Many elementary school teachers are reluctant to use computer technology in their classrooms.
This does not identify a difference between arithmetic and the other subjects. It does not imply that teachers who are reluctant to use computer technology favor using it for one subject over another.
D
Young students are more likely to maintain interest in training programs that use the newest computers and video graphics than in those that do not.
This distinguishes between newer and older computers, not between arithmetic and the other subjects. It does not state whether arithmetic is more often taught on newer computers with more modern graphics.
E
The elementary schools have offered more computer-assisted programs in reading and writing than in arithmetic and science.
This places arithmetic and science in the same category rather than distinguish between arithmetic and the other subjects. It does not explain why students find computers more useful for arithmetic than for science.
"Surprising" Phenomenon
Why does this moral system recognize some habitual actions as praiseworthy if actions can only be praiseworthy when they result from overcoming strong temptation?
Objective
A hypothesis reconciling this conflict must provide evidence that some habitual actions can be performed only after overcoming a powerful temptation.
A
People who perform good actions out of habit have often acquired this habit after years of having resisted temptation.
This explains why habitual actions can be praiseworthy. Though the actions may not require overcoming temptation in the moment, they result from overcoming temptation over an extended period.
B
Most people face strong moral temptation from time to time but few people have to endure it regularly.
This strengthens the conflict. If few people endure temptation regularly, then their habitual actions rarely or never involve overcoming temptation, and thus should not be praiseworthy.
C
People virtually always perform actions they think are good, regardless of what other people may think.
This does not explain how habitual actions can involve overcoming temptation. It addresses the requirement that praiseworthy actions be good, but does not address the primary conflict—that habitual actions can sometimes be praiseworthy.
D
Since it is difficult to tell what is going on in another person’s mind, it is often hard to know exactly how strongly a person is tempted.
This explains why habitual actions may sometimes be praised, but not why they are praiseworthy. If a person is incorrectly believed to have overcome temptation, the moral system described would not consider their actions praiseworthy based on that misconception.
E
It is far more common for people to perform good actions out of habit than for them to do so against strong temptation.
This explains the prevalence of certain actions without addressing the moral issue at hand. If people rarely perform good actions against strong temptation, then there is rarely reason to praise those actions.
Summarize Argument: Phenomenon-Hypothesis
The restaurant manager concludes that his restaurant’s patrons prefer not to eat potatoes because after adding a dish of potatoes baked with cheese to the restaurant’s menu, nobody ordered the dish, even though it’s cheaper than the restaurant’s other vegetarian-friendly main dishes.
Identify and Describe Flaw
The restaurant manager reasons that because nobody has been ordering the dish of potatoes baked with cheese, the restaurant’s patrons must not like to eat potatoes. However, an error of reasoning in the argument is that the manager draws a conclusion that’s too specific without adequate evidence.
While the patrons may not be ordering the potato dish because they dislike potatoes, it could also be for other reasons. They may not be ordering the dish because they dislike the cheese in the dish, the name of the dish, or any other number of reasons.
While the patrons may not be ordering the potato dish because they dislike potatoes, it could also be for other reasons. They may not be ordering the dish because they dislike the cheese in the dish, the name of the dish, or any other number of reasons.
A
concluding that two things that occur at the same time have a common cause
The restaurant manager doesn’t discuss two things having a common cause. He just makes the case for why people aren’t ordering the potato dish.
B
drawing a conclusion that is inconsistent with one premise of the argument
The restaurant manager’s conclusion is that the restaurant’s patrons don’t like potatoes, and his premises are that nobody is ordering the potato dish even though patrons are ordering other vegetarian dishes that are more expensive. The premises doesn’t undermine the conclusion.
C
ignoring possible differences between what people say they want and what they actually choose
The restaurant manager doesn’t discuss what people say they want. He only discusses how patrons aren’t ordering the potato dish but are ordering the other vegetarian dishes.
D
attempting to prove a claim on the basis of evidence that a number of people hold that claim to be true
The restaurant manager doesn’t say his claim that the restaurant’s patrons don’t like potatoes is proven by the number of people who hold that claim to be true. He says the claim that the restaurant’s patrons don’t like potatoes is proven by nobody ever ordering the potato dish.
E
treating one of several plausible explanations of a phenomenon as the only possible explanation
This is the error the restaurant manager commits. Because people aren’t ordering the potato dish, the restaurant manager jumps to the explanation that the patrons don’t like potatoes. However, people not ordering the potato dish could have several other possible explanations.
Summarize Argument
The author of the book review concludes that R’s book doesn’t deserve attention from serious professionals because R frequently attributes bad faith to his critics, R believes that investigators’ funding sources determine what types of “findings” they report, and R often acts arrogant, overly ambitious, and nasty.
Identify and Describe Flaw
This is a cookie-cutter “ad hominem” flaw, where the author attacks the person making an argument instead of the argument itself. In this instance, the author of the book review says that R’s book doesn’t merit attention from serious professionals because R is an unpleasant person who accuses his critics of bad things. Rather than attempting to point out issues with R’s book, the author just points out issues with R.
A
using an attack on the character of the writer of the book as evidence that this person is not competent on matters of scientific substance
This is the flaw the author commits. Rather than criticizing R’s book, the author criticizes R and cites those criticisms of R as why R isn’t competent on matters of scientific substance.
B
taking it for granted that an investigator is unlikely to report findings that are contrary to the interests of those funding the investigation
The author doesn’t make this assumption. The author accuses R of making this assumption.
C
dismissing a scientific theory by giving a biased account of it
The author doesn’t give an account of R’s theory. The author just argues that R’s book shouldn’t receive attention from serious professionals because R has character flaws.
D
presenting as facts several assertions about the book under review that are based only on strong conviction and would be impossible for others to verify
The author doesn’t make several assertions about the book. The author only makes several assertions about R and why R’s behavior proves that R’s book doesn’t deserve serious consideration.
E
failing to distinguish between the criteria of being true and of being sufficiently interesting to merit attention
The author isn’t concerned with whether R’s book is true or interesting. The author only argues that R’s book doesn’t merit attention from serious professionals because of R’s character flaws.