Summarize Argument
Attributing the quality of praise or blame to a group must be translated into a statement about individuals. Why? Because groups cannot be worthy of praise or blame. Blameworthiness requires conscience and agency. Nations and families, for example, possess neither of these qualities.
Identify Argument Part
The claim in the third sentence is used as support for a sub-conclusion, which supports the Philosopher’s main conclusion.
A
It is an intermediate conclusion offered as direct support for the argument’s main conclusion.
The claim is not a sub-conclusion. The claim is used as support for a sub-conclusion in the Philosopher’s argument.
B
It is offered as support for an intermediate conclusion that is in turn offered as direct support for the argument’s main conclusion.
The claim supports a sub-conclusion in the Philosopher’s argument.
C
It is cited as an implication of the main conclusion drawn in the argument.
The claim is not an implication the Philosopher is inferring. The claim is stated as fact.
D
It is cited as an instance of a general conclusion drawn in the argument.
The claim does not directly support the Philosopher’s main conclusion.
E
It is the main conclusion drawn in the argument.
The claim is not the Philosopher’s main conclusion.
Summarize Argument
The author concludes that overcoming negative emotions can cause one’s health to improve. This is based on the fact that stress is known to cause both negative emotions and worse health.
Identify and Describe Flaw
The author assumes that negative emotions cause worse health, simply because both are caused by stress. This overlooks the possibility that two things can have no causal impact on each other, even though they are both effects of a common cause.
A
It presumes without justification that two conditions that together have a certain effect causally influence one another.
The author doesn’t present “two conditions that together have a certain effect.” We’re not told that negative emotions and worse healthy together have some other effect.
B
It presumes, merely on the basis that two conditions have a common cause, that one of these two conditions can causally influence the other.
The author assumes, merely because both negative emotions and worse health have a common cause (stress), that negative emotions causally infuence health.
C
It confuses two causes that together are necessary to bring about an effect with causes that are sufficient for that effect.
The author doesn’t present “two causes that together are necessary to bring about an effect.” We’re not told that negative emotions and worse health are necessary to cause something else.
D
It takes for granted that two conditions that together have a certain effect can, each by itself, produce the same effect.
The author doesn’t present “two conditions that together have a certain effect.” We’re not told that negative emotions and worse health togethr produce an effect.
E
It takes for granted that removing a condition that causally contributes to another condition suffices to eliminate the latter condition.
The author doesn’t establish that negative emotions cause worse health. In addition, the author doesn’t conclude that overcoming negative emotions will “eliminate” any health impairments, only that it will help one’s health improve.
Summary
Some anticancer drugs work by depriving tumors of needed blood vessels. The drugs work by prohibiting angiogenesis, which is the creation of blood vessels. The same drugs have been discovered to prevent obesity in rodents.
Strongly Supported Conclusions
Angiogenesis is necessary for fat cells to grow.
A
The cells in tumors are more similar in structure to fat cells than to other cells in the body.
This answer is unsupported. We don’t know what the structure is of any kind of cell.
B
Drugs that inhibit angiogenesis would probably enable obese humans to lose weight.
This answer is unsupported. We don’t know if these drugs would probably cause obese humans to lose weight. We only know that the drugs have been found to prevent obesity in rodents.
C
Fat tissue depends on angiogenesis in order to grow.
This answer is strongly supported. Since the drugs prevent obesity in rodents, the drugs probably do this by inhibiting angiogenesis.
D
Rodents with cancer are more likely to be obese than healthy rodents.
This answer is unsupported. We don’t know anything about rodents with cancer.
E
Drugs that inhibit angiogenesis also prevent absorption of vital nutrients.
This answer is unsupported. We don’t know if the drugs have any other effects besides inhibiting angiogenesis.