Summarize Argument: Phenomenon-Hypothesis
The author hypothesizes that lycopene reduces the risk of stroke. This is based on a study of 1,000 middle-aged people over a 12 year period, which found that participants with low levels of lycopene were more likely to have a stroke than participants higher levels of lycopene.
Notable Assumptions
The author assumes there’s no other explanation for the correlation between lycopene and reduced risk of stroke.
A
Most fruits and vegetables that are rich in lycopene also contain high levels of several other nutrients that are thought likely to reduce the risk of stroke.
This suggests a potential alternate explanation for the correlation observed in the study. Maybe what reduced risk of stroke was not higher levels of lycopene, but other nutrients found in fruits/veggies that contain lycopene.
B
Countries in which people consume substantial quantities of lycopene-rich fruits and vegetables generally have lower rates of stroke than other countries.
This strengthens the argument by providing evidence that shows the correlation observed in the study is found more broadly, too.
C
Middle-aged people typically have lower lycopene levels than young adults.
This doesn’t have any impact, since we don’t know whether middle-aged people are more or less likely to have strokes than young adults. Even if we did, this might strengthen, because middle-aged people probably have more strokes.
D
Study participants with high levels of lycopene consumed, on average, twice the quantity of fruits and vegetables as those with low levels of lycopene.
This might explain how the participants with high levels of lycopene got their high levels of lycopene. But it doesn’t suggest there are alternate explanations for the lower risk of stroke.
E
There was wide variation in lycopene levels among study participants.
We know there was a correlation between higher lycopene and lower risk of stroke. This doesn’t mean everyone had similar levels of lycopene. So, (E) is consistent with the author’s reasoning.
Summarize Argument
The author concludes that we are increasingly bombarded with inaccurate and trivial information. This is based on the fact that journalistic standards are being lowered due to the increased competition among print media, television, and the Internet for money from advertisers and subscribers.
Identify Conclusion
The conclusion is what the author asserts is a consequence of journalistic standards being lowered: “[W]e are increasingly bombarded with inaccurate and trivial information.”
A
The drawbacks of the information explosion now outweigh its benefits.
The author never asserts anything about the weighing of benefits and drawbacks of the information explosion.
B
People are more and more subjected to insignificant and unreliable information.
This is a paraphrase of the last sentence, which is the conclusion.
C
Journalistic standards have fallen in recent years.
This is part of the support. Because journalistic standards have lowered, the author concludes that we are increasingly bombarded with inaccurate and trivial information.
D
One result of the current information explosion is fierce competition among the print media, television, and the Internet for both money and public attention.
This is part of the support. Because of this competition, journalistic standards have been lowered, which in turn means we are increasingly bombarded with inaccurate and trivial information.
E
If journalists returned to earlier journalistic standards, the significance and reliability of news stories would increase.
The author never asserts anything about what would happen if journalists returned to earlier journalistic standards.
Summarize Argument
The author concludes that the best way to increase the blood supply in the city of Pulaski is to encourage more donations by people who are regular blood donors. This is based on a study conducted in two other cities, which showed that officials had a lot of success in convincing regular blood donors to donate more frequently. But it was difficult to attract first-time blood donors.
Notable Assumptions
The author assumes that the city of Pulaski is relevantly similar to the other cities with respect to potential for the cities’ blood donors to increase the frequency of their donation. The author also assumes that there aren’t other ways to increase blood supply besides increasing blood donation frequency or getting first-time donors. (This overlooks the possibility of getting blood from other cities or countries or other sources.)
A
Increasing blood donation by regular donors in Moorestown and Fredricksburg produced a significant increase in the blood supply in those cities.
This strengthens the argument.
B
The pool of potential blood donors in Moorestown and Fredricksburg contained proportionally fewer frequent blood donors than does the pool of potential donors in the city of Pulaski.
This strengthens the argument by suggesting Pulaski might be able to increase its blood supply more than the other cities did through getting regular donors to donate more frequently.
C
A follow-up study in Moorestown and Fredricksburg showed that long-term frequency of blood donation among regular donors remained higher after the promotional campaign than it had been before the campaign.
This strengthens the argument by showing that getting donors to donate more frequently has lasting effects.
D
In the city of Pulaski, the number of sporadic blood donors is significantly greater than the number of regular blood donors.
The author never assumed that there were more regular blood donors than sporadic ones. Regardless of the relative proportion of blood donors, getting the regular ones to donate more can still increase the blood supply.
E
Almost all of the regular blood donors in the city of Pulaski are already giving blood as frequently as is medically safe.
This suggests that getting regular blood donors to donate more frequently might not be a viable solution in Pulaski. If almost all are already donating the maximum amount that’s safe, they are unlikely to donate more frequently.
Summarize Argument
The author concludes that most people would have healthier diets if they ate Honey Oat Puffs for breakfast. This is based on the fact that Honey Oat Puffs contain whole-grain oats, and health experts agree that whole-grain oats are healthier than most of the foods in a typical diet.
Identify and Describe Flaw
The author assumes that because part of Honey Oat Puffs is healthier than what’s in a typical diet (whole-grain oats), that the whole cereal is healthier than what’s in a typical diet. This overlooks the possibility that Honey Oat Puffs contains other things (such as sugar, perhaps), that would make the cereal overall less healthy, even if the oats are healthy.
A
infers that a food will have a certain property simply because one of the food’s ingredients has that property
The author infers that Honey Oat Puffs are healthier than foods in a typical diet simply because one ingredient — whole-grain oats — has that property. This overlooks the possibility that the cereal has other ingredients that make it less healthy than foods in a typical diet.
B
treats a property that is sufficient to make a food healthful as a property that a food must have in order to be healthful
There is no property that is sufficient to make a food healthful. Although whole-grain oats are healthful, they are not enough to guarantee that Honey Oat Puffs are healthful.
C
confuses two distinct meanings of the word “healthful”
“Healthful” does not take on two different meanings in this argument. The word means tending to promote health.
D
concludes that a food contributes to health simply because that food tends to be part of the diets of healthy people
The premises do not assert that Honey Oat Puffs tends to be part of the diets of healthy people. They also do not assert that whole-grain oats tend to be part of the diets of healthy people.
E
contains a premise that presupposes the truth of the conclusion
(E) describes circular reasoning. The conclusion, which asserts that Honey Oat Puffs are healthful, is not restated in the premises. The premises concern whole-grain oats being healthful and Honey Oat Puffs containing whole-grain oats.