"Surprising" Phenomenon
If people undergoing migraine treatment tend to show more signs of anxiety (a psychological issue), how can it be that the cause of migraines has nothing to do with psychological factors?
Objective
The right answer will be a hypothesis that offers a difference between people who are being treated for migraines and people who are not. This difference will provide another explanation for why people who are receiving treatment tend to have more anxiety without saying that anxiety or other psychological factors cause migraines.
A
People who have migraine headaches tend to have relatives who also have migraine headaches.
(A) does not offer a difference between the groups, and is therefore not useful for explaining the apparent discrepancy.
B
People who have migraine headaches often suffer these headaches when under emotional stress.
(B) deepens the apparent discrepancy instead of helping to explain it. If people often get migraines when under emotional stress, it leads one to believe that migraines could be caused by psychological factors, which contradicts the strong evidence offered in the stimulus.
C
People who rate higher on the standard psychological scale of anxiety are more likely to seek professional treatment than are people who rate lower on the scale.
(C) offers a difference that explains why individuals being treated for migraines have more anxiety: it is not because anxiety causes migraines, but because they are more likely to seek, and therefore receive, professional treatment.
D
Of the many studies done on the cause of migraine headaches, most of those that suggest that psychological factors such as anxiety cause migraines have been widely publicized.
This does not help to explain the apparent discrepancy, as the publicized nature of certain studies does not affect those studies’ results.
E
Most people who have migraines and who seek professional treatment remain in treatment until they stop having migraines, whether their doctors consider the cause to be physiological or psychological.
(E) does not address the apparent discrepancy. The length of time or success of one’s treatment does not explain why people who receive treatment have more anxiety than those who do not.
Economist: Your conclusion cannot be correct, since it would mean that an income tax of 0 percent would generate the maximum revenue.
Summarize Argument: Counter-Position
The economist concludes that, contrary to what the politician says, it cannot be true that the lower the rate of income tax, the more revenue generated. As evidence, the economist points out that an income tax rate of 0 percent would generate the most revenue.
Describe Method of Reasoning
The economist counters the position held by the politician. He does this by showing that the politician’s conclusion would lead to an obviously false outcome. It is obviously false that an income tax rate of 0 percent would generate the maximum amount of income tax revenue.
A
stating a general principle that is incompatible with the conclusion the politician derives
The economist does not state a general principle. Rather, the economist is addressing a specific concern about the effect income tax rates would or would not have on revenue.
B
providing evidence that where the politician’s advice has been adopted, the results have been disappointing
The economist does not present this kind of evidence. Rather, the economist discusses the effects on a theoretical level.
C
arguing that the principle derived by the politician, if applied in the limiting case, leads to an absurdly false conclusion
The principle derived by the politician is the lower the income tax rate, the more revenue the government will generate. The limiting case is applying the politician’s principle to an instance where the income tax rate is 0 percent.
D
undermining the credibility of the politician by openly questioning the politician’s understanding of economics
The economist is not undermining the politician’s credibility. Rather, the economist is simply pointing out that the politician’s predictions would lead to obviously false conclusion.
E
attacking the politician’s argument by giving reason to doubt the truth of a premise
The economist does not attack a premise asserted by the politician. Rather, the economist criticizes the politician’s conclusion by pointing out an obviously false outcome.
Winifred: Not necessarily. Most animals have several ways of accomplishing critical tasks. Bees of some species can navigate using either the position of the Sun or the memory of landmarks. Similarly, for honeybees, scent trails are a supplementary not an exclusive means of communicating.
Summarize Argument: Counter-Position
Winifred thinks that honeybees’ use of scent trails does not necessarily mean that the dance of honeybees serves a purpose other than communicating food locations. As support, Winifred explains that most creatures “have several ways of accomplishing critical tasks.” We also get a specific example to back up this claim: some bees can navigate using either the Sun or landmarks. Winifred further states that honeybees’ scent trails are not their main communication method. Winifred’s conclusion is thus supported by both a broad claim about animals and a specific one about honeybees.
Identify Argument Part
Winifred’s statement about how bees of some species navigate is a specific example used to support the claim that most animals can accomplish critical tasks in multiple ways.
A
It addresses an ambiguity in Henry’s use of the expression “communicate the location.”
here is no ambiguity to address in Henry’s use of the phrase “communicate the location”, nor does Winifred claim there is. This just isn’t something the argument does.
B
It provides evidence in support of a general claim.
This matches the use of the claim about certain bees’ navigation methods. The claim is used in the argument as an example of animals having “several ways to accomplish critical tasks.” The example provides support by showing that the general claim is backed up in reality.
C
It calls into question the accuracy of key evidence cited by Henry.
Winifred never contests the accuracy of Henry’s evidence, meaning no part of Winifred’s argument plays this role.
D
It points out that Henry’s conclusion directly contradicts one of his premises.
This is not something that any part of Winifred’s argument does.
E
It proposes an alternative explanation for the honeybees’ dance.
Winifred never actually states what might be the purpose of the honeybees’ dance (and nor does Henry). The argument is just about whether it’s possible the dance is used to communicate food locations.
Winifred: Not necessarily. Most animals have several ways of accomplishing critical tasks. Bees of some species can navigate using either the position of the Sun or the memory of landmarks. Similarly, for honeybees, scent trails are a supplementary not an exclusive means of communicating.
Speaker 1 Summary
Henry argues that the purpose of the honeybees’ dance must be for something besides alerting other bees to the location of food. This is because bees already have another method of communicating the location of food - scent trails from the food source.
Speaker 2 Summary
Winifred points out that animals can have multiple methods for achieving the same goal. So, it’s possible honeybees alert others to food sources through their dance, even if they already have another method for alerting others to food sources.
Objective
We’re looking for a point of disagreement. The speakers disagree on whether there must be another explanation for the honeybees’ dance besides the purpose of communicating the location of food.
A
theories of animal behavior can be established on the basis of evidence about only one species of animal
Henry doesn’t have an opinion on this. He doesn’t try to infer anything about a general theory of animal behavior from a single species. His argument is solely about honeybees and the purpose of their dance.
B
there is more than one valid explanation for the dance of honeybees
Henry has no opinion. He thinks there must be another explanation besides communicating food source. But he could be open to one or multiple other explanations.
C
honeybees communicate the location of food sources through their dance
The speakers disagree. Henry thinks there must be a different explanation for why honeybees dance. Winifred believes this is a potential explanation for the dance.
D
the honeybee is the only species of bee that is capable of communicating navigational information to other hive members
Henry has no opinion. We know he thinks forager honeybees communicate location of food through a scent trail. We don’t know whether he thinks other kinds of bees also do this or whether other kinds of bees use other methods for communicating the location of things.
E
the honeybee’s sense of smell plays a role in its foraging strategies
The speakers agree. Henry believes this because he acknowledges honeybees communicate food location through a scent trail. Winifred also acknowledges this method of communicating food location - it’s a supplementary method of communication.