A
Governments should not be allowed to compel corporate officials to surrender interoffice memos to government investigators.
B
When crime is a serious problem, governments should be given increased power to investigate and prosecute suspected wrongdoers, and some restrictions on admissible evidence should be relaxed.
C
Governments should not be allowed to use an individual’s remarks to prosecute the individual for criminal activity unless the remarks were intended for other people.
D
Governments should not have the power to confiscate an individual’s personal correspondence to use as evidence against the individual in a criminal trial.
E
Governments should do everything in their power to investigate and prosecute suspected wrongdoers.
A ring of gas emitting X-rays flickering 450 times per second has been observed in a stable orbit around a black hole. In light of certain widely accepted physical theories, that rate of flickering can best be explained if the ring of gas has a radius of 49 kilometers. But the gas ring could not maintain an orbit so close to a black hole unless the black hole was spinning.
Summary
Scientists have seen a ring of gas that maintains a stable orbit around a black hole. The gas ring emits X-rays that flicker 450 times per second. This flickering speed suggests that the gas ring has a radius of 49 kilometers, meaning that it is very close to the black hole. However, for the gas ring to maintain its orbit so close to the black hole, the black hole itself must be spinning.
Strongly Supported Conclusions
In some conditions, gas can orbit black holes at a close distance.
The black hole is spinning.
A
Black holes that have orbiting rings of gas with radii greater than 49 kilometers are usually stationary.
This is unsupported. We know only that black holes that have orbiting rings of gas with radii of 49 kilometers must be spinning. We do not know the conditions of black holes that have orbiting rings of gas with radii greater than 49 kilometers.
B
Only rings of gas that are in stable orbits around black holes emit flickering X-rays.
This is unsupported. The stimulus only tells us about this particular ring of gas. We do not have any information about the emissions of any other rings of gas.
C
The black hole that is within the ring of gas observed by the astronomers is spinning.
This is strongly supported. We know that the gas ring has been observed in a stable orbit very close to the black hole. Because the ring can only maintain such a close orbit if the black hole is spinning, we can conclude that the black hole is spinning.
D
X-rays emitted by rings of gas orbiting black holes cause those black holes to spin.
This is unsupported. The stimulus tells us that the black hole must be spinning based on the observed facts of the gas ring. However, it does not tell us what causes the black hole to spin.
E
A black hole is stationary only if it is orbited by a ring of gas with a radius of more than 49 kilometers.
This is unsupported. We know only that a black hole orbited by a gas ring with a radius of 49 kilometers must not be stationary. We do not know the conditions required for a black hole to be stationary.
Some nurseries label Stark Sweet Melody trees as “miniature.”
If Stark Sweet Melody trees can’t be grown in a tub or pot, then some nurseries mislabel them.
A
Most nurseries mislabel at least some of their fruit trees.
B
Some of the nurseries have correctly labeled nectarine trees of the Stark Sweet Melody variety only if the variety is unsuitable for growing in a tub or a pot.
C
Any nectarine tree of the Stark Sweet Melody variety that a nursery labels “miniature” is labeled incorrectly.
D
Some nectarine trees that are not labeled “miniature” are labeled incorrectly.
E
Unless the Stark Sweet Melody variety of nectarine tree is suitable for growing in a tub or a pot, some nurseries mislabel this variety of tree.
Psychologist: Identical twins are virtually the same genetically. Moreover, according to some studies, identical twins separated at birth and brought up in vastly different environments show a strong tendency to report similar ethical beliefs, dress in the same way, and have similar careers. Thus, many of our inclinations must be genetic in origin, and not subject to environmental influences.
Summarize Argument: Phenomenon-Hypothesis
The psychologist hypothesizes that many of our inclinations are genetic and are not influenced by environment. He bases this on studies showing that identical twins separated at birth and raised in different environments often report similar ethical beliefs, dress, and careers.
Notable Assumptions
The psychologist assumes that genetics are the cause of the separated twins’ similar inclinations, without considering other factors or experiences that might influence them.
He also assumes that the studies of identical twins raised in different environments are representative of all identical twins, and that these findings can be generalized to support the idea that genetics are primarily responsible for many inclinations.
A
Many people, including identical twins, undergo radical changes in their lifestyles at some point in their lives.
(A) doesn’t suggest that one twin changes radically while the other remains the same. It could be that both twins undergo similar changes, which doesn’t weaken the psychologist’s conclusion that our traits are more influenced by genetics than environment.
B
While some studies of identical twins separated at birth reveal a high percentage of similar personality traits, they also show a few differences.
The psychologist concludes that many, not all, of our inclinations are genetic rather than environmental. The fact that some studies show a few differences in identical twins separated at birth does not weaken this conclusion.
C
Scientists are far from being able to link any specific genes to specific inclinations.
The fact that scientists can’t pinpoint exactly which genes cause certain traits doesn’t weaken the idea that those traits are genetically determined. Thus, (C) doesn’t weaken the psychologist’s conclusion.
D
Identical twins who grow up together tend to develop different beliefs, tastes, and careers in order to differentiate themselves from each other.
This weakens the psychologist’s conclusion by providing evidence that directly contradicts it. If identical twins raised together often have different beliefs, tastes, and careers, these inclinations can’t be solely genetic.
E
Twins who are not identical tend to develop different beliefs, tastes, and careers.
The psychologist is only drawing a conclusion about identical twins. So the inclinations of twins who are not identical are irrelevant and don’t weaken the psychologist’s argument.
Human beings can live happily only in a society where love and friendship are the primary motives for actions. Yet economic needs can be satisfied in the absence of this condition, as, for example, in a merchant society where only economic utility motivates action. It is obvious then that human beings _______.
Summary
People must live in a society primarily motivated by love and friendship in order to be happy. However, their economic needs can still be met outside of such a society. For example, humans’ economic needs can be met in a society that’s just motivated by economic utility.
Strongly Supported Conclusions
Human beings can have their economic needs met and still be unhappy.
Human beings cannot be happy in a society motivated primarily by economic utility.
A
can live happily only when economic utility is not a motivator in their society
This is unsupported. The stimulus says that love and friendship must be the primary motivators of a society in order for people to be happy. As far as we know, economic utility can still be one of the society’s motivators, it just must not be the primary motivator.
B
cannot achieve happiness unless their economic needs have already been satisfied
This is unsupported. The satisfaction of economic needs is not presented as necessary for happiness. Rather, a society motivated by love and friendship is necessary. Perhaps one could live in a society motivated by love, be economically unsatisfied, and still be happy.
C
cannot satisfy economic needs by means of interactions with family members and close friends
This is unsupported. The stimulus does not give us any information about whether a person can or cannot satisfy their economic needs through family and friends. We only know that economic needs can be satisfied in a society “where only economic utility motivates action.”
D
can satisfy their basic economic needs without obtaining happiness
This is strongly supported. Humans must live in a society primarily motivated by love and friendship in order to obtain happiness. Humans can satisfy their basic economic needs outside of such a society. Thus, humans can satisfy their economic needs without obtaining happiness.
E
cannot really be said to have satisfied their economic needs unless they are happy
This is anti-supported. The stimulus tells us that humans can satisfy their economic needs in a society primarily motivated by economic utility. In such a society, people are not happy. So a person does not need to be happy in order to be economically satisfied.
A
It is already technologically possible to produce nonpolluting cars that burn hydrogen rather than gasoline.
B
The fuel-distribution infrastructure for hydrogen-powered cars still needs to be created.
C
If a new kind of technology is developed, the infrastructure needed to support that technology is likely to quickly develop in response to consumer demands.
D
The fuel-distribution infrastructure for hydrogen-powered cars is likely to appear and grow rapidly.
E
Hydrogen-powered vehicles will be similar to gasoline-powered vehicles with regard to the amount of consumer demand for their fuel-distribution infrastructure.
A
fails to consider that wildlife management experts probably know best how to facilitate the survival of an endangered species in a habitat
B
fails to recognize that a nonendangered species can easily become an endangered species
C
overlooks the possibility that saving an endangered species in a habitat is incompatible with preserving the overall diversity of species in that habitat
D
presumes, without providing justification, that the survival of each endangered species is equally important to the health of the environment
E
takes for granted that preserving a currently endangered species in a habitat does not have higher priority than preserving species in that habitat that are not endangered
Any food that has been sterilized and properly sealed does not contain bacteria.
Some acceptable food-preservation techniques involve sterilizing and sealing food.
Some acceptable food-preservation techniques involve slowing the growth of disease-causing bacteria.
Some acceptable food-preservation techniques may destroy natural food enzymes that cause food to spoil or discolor quickly.
If a food has been preserved without being sterilized or sealed, that food could contain disease-causing bacteria.